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ABSTRACT
The international struggle against apartheid that emerged during the second half of the twentieth century made the system of legalised racial oppression in South Africa one of the world’s great moral causes. Looking back at the anti-apartheid struggle, a defining characteristic was the scope of the worldwide efforts to condemn, co-ordinate, and isolate the country. In March 1961, the international campaign against apartheid achieved its first major success when Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd chose to withdraw South Africa from the Commonwealth following vocal protests at the Heads of State Summit held in London. As a consequence, it appeared albeit briefly, that external pressure would effectively serve as a catalyst for achieving far-reaching and immediate political change in South Africa. The global campaign, centred on South Africa remaining in the Commonwealth, was the first of its kind launched by South Africa’s national liberation movements, and signalled the beginning of thirty years of continued protest and lobbying. The contributions from one organisation that had a role in launching and co-ordinating this particular transnational campaign, the South Africa United Front (SAUF), an alliance of liberation groups, have been largely forgotten. Leading members of the SAUF claimed the organisation had a key part in South Africa’s subsequent exit from the Commonwealth, and the purpose of this article is to explore the validity of such assertions, as well as the role and impact it had in generating a groundswell of opposition to apartheid in the early 1960s. Although the SAUF’s demands for South Africa to leave the Commonwealth were ultimately fulfilled, the documentary evidence suggests that its campaigning activities and impact were not a decisive factor; however the long-term significance of the SAUF, and the position it had in the rise of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) has not been fully recognised. As such, the events around the campaign for South Africa’s withdrawal from the Commonwealth act as a microcosm of developments that would define the international struggle against apartheid.
Acknowledgments
I’d like to thank the anonymous peer-reviewers for offering helpful and constructive comments and guidance on this article. I would also like to thank the help and support of the International Studies Group, at the University of the Free State, where I am a Research Associate.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Dadoo, “Why the United Front Failed”.
2 Gurney, “A Great Cause,” 123–44; Skinner, “Moral Foundations,” 399–416.
3 Graham, Crisis, 2.
4 It must be noted that seeking international moral and political support was just one dimension within the wider-strategy for liberation employed by the movements. This period saw both the ANC and PAC utilise violence in their quest for liberation, a ‘turn’ that was not universally popular among activists creating schisms over direction and purpose. However, as the period in exile grew, freedom achieved through a violent liberation struggle increasingly came to dominate the political thinking of these movements.
5 Gurney, “A Great Cause,” 133–5.
6 While the SAUF is regularly mentioned in a range of studies such as Ndlovu, Dubow, Lissoni, Fieldhouse, and Skinner, it is a fragmented history that usually only merits several pages at most.
7 “South Africa United Front: Minutes of meeting held in Addis Ababa, 19 June 1960, Hotel Guenet”, Mayibuye Archive, University of Western Cape (hereafter UWC), MCH02, Box 1, Item 3.
8 “Record of remarks by Dr Verwoerd, 16th March, 1961”, The National Archives (TNA), London, DO161/110.
9 UN Security Resolution 134 (1960), “Question relating to the situation in the Union of South Africa”.
10 Lodge, Sharpeville, 169.
11 Callinicos, Tambo, 253.
12 “Molotsi interview”, Historical Papers, William Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, Gerhart, Gail Interviews and documents, A2422, Box 1.
13 Kondlo, Twilight, 68.
14 Pahad, “A proud history of struggle,” 63.
15 The SACP was not formally part of the SAUF, but due to the organisations secretive structure following its banning in 1950, it had representatives who held positions in both the ANC and SAIC.
16 “South Africa United Front, Decisions and Resolutions, 19 January 1961”, Mayibuye Archives, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 2.
17 Ridgway, et al., Shooting at the Old Location.
18 The influence of the Namibian movements to the SAUF was limited, with the vast majority of its campaigns almost entirely focusing on South Africa. For the purposes of this article, the campaigns that addressed Namibia / South West Africa will not be examined.
19 Ndlovu, “The ANC in exile,” 429.
20 Dadoo, “Why the United Front Failed”.
21 Tambo, “Comments and Observations on United Front and After, by Judy Coburn,” 11, Liberation Archives, University of Fort Hare (hereafter UFH), Oliver Tambo Papers, Box 83, Folder, 871.
22 Ibid., 1.
23 Kondlo, Twilight, 113.
24 Sisulu, In our lifetime, 179; Lodge, Sharpeville, 197; Kondlo, Twilight, 112–5.
25 “Decisions taken at a meeting of the secretariat of the NEC, 24 October 1961”, Mayibuye Archive, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 1.
26 Karis, and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, 351; Lissoni, “liberation movements in exile,” 92; Lodge, Black Politics, 297; Shubin, View From Moscow, 49; Thomas, Diplomacy of Liberation, 35.
27 Tambo, “Comments and Observations,” 1–2.
28 Ndlovu, “The ANC in exile,” 429; Mandela, Long Walk, 352; Johns, “Obstacles,” 277.
29 For example, see: “Copy of letter dated 18th February, 1961 from T.W. Keeble, Accra to J. Chadwick”, TNA, PREM11/3537; “Record of a conversation at Admiralty House, November 8th 1960”, TNA, PREM11/3115.
30 The Times, “S. Africa’s place safe in Commonwealth,” 10 March 1961; The Times, “Prime Ministers at crucial stage,” 13 March 1961.
31 “Minutes of meeting held in Addis Ababa, 19 June 1960, Hotel Guenet”, Mayibuye Archives, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 3.
32 Ibid.
33 Tambo, “Comments and Observations,” 5.
34 “Resolution adopted by the Second Conference of Independent African States, 14–26 June 1960, Addis Ababa”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973.
35 Thörn, Civil Society; Gurney, “A Great Cause”; Skinner, Anti-apartheid; Stevens, “Strategies”.
36 “Correspondence of Tennyson Makiwane, 1959–60”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 4; Gurney, “A Great Cause,” 134; Dubow, “New Approaches,” 312.
37 “Committee of African Organisations’ papers concerning establishment of Boycott Movement, 1959–60”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 1.
38 Fieldhouse, Anti-apartheid, 27.
39 “Letter to Nana Mahomo from Rosalynde Ainslie, 8 August 1960”; “Return letter from Nana Mahomo to Rosalynde Ainslie, 10 August 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973.
40 Fieldhouse, Anti-Apartheid, 28.
41 “Letter from Rosalynde Ainslie to the SAUF, 21 November 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973.
42 “Press statement: The situation in South Africa, 6 September 1960”, Mayibuye Archive, UWC, MCH02, Box 2, Item 7.
43 Ibid.
44 “AAM Minutes of executive committee 14 September 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 66.
45 “SAUF Press Statement, 18 November 1960”, Mayibuye Archive, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 5.
46 “London Reporting to the Offices of the South Africa United Front, Accra/Cairo/New York, 21 November 1960”, Historical Papers, William Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, Oliver Tambo Papers, A2561, C4.46.
47 See Graham, Crisis, chapters 2 & 3.
48 “Conclusions of a Meeting of the Cabinet, 6 May 1960”, TNA, London, CAB/128/34; The Guardian, “Conference in state of quiet pessimism,” 10 May 1960.
49 Kenny, Verwoerd, 238.
50 “South Africa United Front, Decisions and Resolutions”, Mayibuye Archive, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 2.
51 Nana Mohomo interview with CBC, News Magazine, 22 January 1961.
52 Tambo and Make, “Statement”, UFH, Oliver Tambo Papers, Box 083, Folder, 0871; The Guardian, “Exile delegation for the UN,” 17 October 1960.
53 “Minutes 30 December 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 66.
54 “Copy of Memorandum from United Front, 7 December 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973; “Minutes 30 December 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 66.
55 “South Africa United Front, Decisions and Resolutions”, Mayibuye Archive, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 2.
56 “Extract from Delhi: South Africa and the Commonwealth”, TNA, DO161/110.
57 The Guardian, “Suspend South Africa from the Commonwealth,” 26 Jan 1961; The Observer, “S. African Petition,” 12 March 1961.
58 Hyam, “Parting,” 157–75; Hyam and Henshaw, Lion, 254–72; Dubow, The Commonwealth, 297–9; Wood, “The roles,” 153–79.
59 For example see various files in: TNA, DO161/106; TNA, DO161/110; TNA, PREM11/3115; TNA, PREM11/3116; TNA, PREM11/3217; TNA, PREM11/3393.
60 “Anti-Apartheid Bulletin, no.2, report of Anti-apartheid conference, 28 January 1961”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 2205.
61 Legum, Pan-Africanism, 144–45.
62 “South Africa and Commonwealth, 6 March 1961”, TNA, DO161/110; “Africa 1961: South Africa and the Commonwealth” and “Views of Commonwealth governments”, TNA, DO161/106; The Times, “S. Africa’s place safe in Commonwealth,” 10 March 1961.
63 The Guardian, “Expulsion not likely,” 8 March 1961.
64 Hyam, “Parting,” 166–70.
65 See Nyerere’s various letters to Heads of State before the conference in: TNA, DO161/45; The Observer, “South Africa or us,” 12 March 1961.
66 “Communique issued on 15th March 1961: in Annex II of Final Communique March 17th”, TNA, PREM11/3215.
67 Dadoo, “Forced withdrawal”.
68 Bernstein, “Break with the commonwealth,” 5.
69 “A month of victories”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 2205.
70 “The ides of March,” 2.
71 “South Africa United Front, Newsletter. Press Statement, 16 March 1961”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, Mss Afr. S 1681, Box 209, File 2, Item 10, ANC documents.
72 UN Resolution 1598 (XV), Question of race conflict in South Africa, 15 April 1961.
73 Reddy, “The United Nations,” 53.
74 “Anti-apartheid Movement Press Conference, 25 May 1961”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973.
75 Dadoo, “Why the United Front Failed”.
76 Lodge, Black Politics, 232.
77 “Decisions taken at a meeting of the Secretariat of the NEC, 24 October 1961”, UWC, Mayibuye Archives, MCH02, Box 1, Item 1.
78 “South Africa United Front Press Statement”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 973.
79 Tambo, “Comments and Observations,” 7.
80 Hyam, “Parting,” 172.
81 The Guardian, “Dr Verwoerd back to a hero’s welcome,” 21 March 1961.
82 For a visual representation see: “Atlas of Apartheid’s Allies”.
83 Dubow, “Macmillan,” 1110.
84 “Conclusions of a meeting of the cabinet, 16 March 1961”, TNA, London, CAB/128/35/13; “Conclusions of a meeting of the cabinet, 21 March 1961”, TNA, London, CAB/128/35/15.
85 Tambo, “Comments and Observations,” 13.
86 Sisulu, In our lifetime, 179.
87 Kondlo, Twilight, 114–15; Lodge, Sharpeville, 197.
88 Tambo, “Comments and Observations,” 11.
89 “Activities of the South African United Front”, TNA, FCO141/17899.
90 Ibid.
91 “Decisions taken at a meeting of the Secretariat of the NEC, 24 October 1961”, Mayibuye Archives, UWC, MCH02, Box 1, Item 1.
92 Kondlo, Twilight, 115.
93 “Notes of meeting to discuss OAU Liberation Committee resolution calling for a united front with PAC”, Historical Papers, William Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, Oliver Tambo Papers, A5261, C4.46, South African Front / South African United Front; Ibid., The Call for Unity and a United Front.
94 Klein, “Publicising,” 395.
95 Williams, Politics of Race,” 109; Gurney, “1970s,” 472.
96 Fieldhouse, Anti-apartheid, 60.
97 Lodge, Sharpeville, 250; Fieldhouse, Anti-apartheid, 284.
98 Graham, Crisis, 12–13.
99 Fieldhouse, Anti-apartheid, 60.
100 “Boycott movement minutes, 30 April Recall Conference 1960”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM 2.
101 Fieldhouse, Anti-apartheid, 32–35.
102 “Discussion document on the future of the anti-apartheid movement, 3 May 1961”, University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSS AAM45.
103 Skinner, Anti-apartheid, 181; Williams, Politics of race, 33.
104 Skinner, Anti-apartheid, 109.
105 Ellis, Mission, 308–10; Graham, “Solidarity”.