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ABSTRACT
The Amherst embassy of 1816–17 has usually been considered little more than a failure. Recent studies, however, have shown how the embassy provided invaluable first-hand information about a China in decline and thus paved the way for more confrontational British views of the Middle Kingdom. But there is little evidence that the embassy had any significant impact on British attitudes towards China. It largely reconfirmed or reinforced pre-existing impressions, especially for the members who had already spent time there. Nor did the embassy cause much of a stir in Britain, and China was rarely the topic of sustained discussion there until the 1830s. Yet the embassy matters in several important ways that have often been overlooked. One is the lessons that were learned and applied from the Macartney embassy, both before and during this second British embassy. Another is how the East India Company's officers in Canton were able to influence the practice of British diplomacy in China. Far from viewing the embassy as a failure, these ‘men on the spot’ considered it a splendid example of British firmness and resolve when dealing with the Qing authorities. Focusing on the failure of the embassy also overlooks the interplay between local knowledge and experience in Canton and that in the rest of China, even if the expedition to and from Peking mainly confirmed earlier assumptions about China and its people.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Abel, Narrative of a Journey, vi. Fortunately, Abel had left some specimens in China with Staunton, who later returned them after he reached England. Some of Lord Amherst's correspondence survived and is now in the India Office Records at the British Library.
2 19 Feb 1817, Hayne Diary.
3 Eames, The English in China, 150, 151–2.
4 Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 59.
5 Cameron, Barbarians and Mandarins, 322.
6 Tuck, “Sir George Thomas Staunton,” viii. On the failure of the embassy, see also Kitson, “Writing China,” 1–10.
7 On interpreting such failures, see Hertek and Keevak, “Telling Failures.”
8 Davis, Sketches of China, vol. 2, 90.
9 Gao, “The Amherst Embassy.”
10 Gao, “The ‘Inner Kowtow Controversy’,” 597.
11 Kitson, “The Dark Gift,” 56.
12 Tuck, “Sir George Thomas Staunton,” viii.
13 21 April 1817, Amherst to Canning, IOR/G/12/197. Also in IOR/G/12/198.
14 Barrow, Travels in China.
15 Barrow, Auto-Biographical Memoir, 116, 118.
16 Anon, Foreign Trade of China, 15.
17 Tong, “Lessons of Failure,” 167.
18 On the Qing side, James Hevia has shown how the planning by the Jiaqing court for the reception and activities for the Amherst embassy were informed by the Macartney embassy, and how the conflicts in Canton between British merchants and local officials convinced the court to take a stricter approach to the preparations for Amherst's audience with the emperor. Hevia, Cherishing Men from Afar, 214–18.
19 On the ‘man on the spot,’ see Galbraith, “The ‘Turbulent Frontier’.”
20 14 Feb 1815, Barrow to Buckinghamshire, IOR/G/12/196, original emphasis. Also in IOR/G/12/197.
21 Barrow, Auto-Biographical Memoir, 116–17.
22 14 Feb 1815, Barrow to Buckinghamshire, IOR/G/12/196. Also in IOR/G/12/197.
23 Ibid.
24 19 April 1815, meeting of Secret Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/196.
25 21 April 1815, meeting of Secret Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/196.
26 2 May and 7 and 26 July 1815, meetings of Secret Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/196.
27 28 July 1815, Chairman and Deputy Chairman to Buckinghamshire, IOR/G/12/196.
28 26 Aug 1815, Sullivan to Buckinghamshire, IOR/G/12/196.
29 21 Sept 1815, Buckinghamshire to Chairman and Deputy Chairman, IOR/G/12/196.
30 Healey, “Ellis, Sir Henry.”
31 Copy, 27 September 1815, Secret Commercial Letter to China, IOR/G/12/196.
32 Oct 1815, extract, Secret Commercial Letter to China, IOR/G/12/196.
33 14 Feb 1815, Barrow to Buckinghamshire, IOR/G/12/197. Also in IOR/G/12/196.
34 On the presents, see also Kitson, “The Dark Gift,” 74–9.
35 21 Sept 1815, record of conference between chairs and John Barrow, Mss Eur F140/38a; original emphasis. Also in IOR/G/12/196.
36 17 Jan 1816, Secret Commercial Committee to Amherst, IOR/G/12/196.
37 Record of conference between chairs and John Barrow, India House, 21 Sept 1815, and list of articles intended as presents for emperor of China and his Ministers, Mss Eur F140/38a; original emphasis. Also in IOR/G/12/196.
38 Castlereagh to Amherst, 1 Jan 1816, IOR/G/12/196. Also in Morse, Chronicles of the East India Company, vol. 3, 279–80.
39 Castlereagh to Amherst 1 Jan 1816, IOR/G/12/196.
40 Secret Commercial Committee to Amherst, 17 Jan 1816, IOG/G/12/196.
41 Notes by Amherst on policy to be pursued by British Embassy to China (July 1815), Mss Eur F140/36.
42 Ibid.
43 Staunton, Memoirs of the Chief Incidents, 41–4.
44 Gao, “The ‘Inner Kowtow Controversy’.” See also Kitson, “The ‘Catastrophe of This New Chinese Mission’.”
45 Staunton, Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences, 31.
46 Eastberg, “West Meets East,” 195–7.
47 Staunton, Miscellaneous Notices Relating to China, 407.
48 Staunton to Amherst, 11 July 1816, IOR/G/12/196.
49 Staunton and Cotton to Amherst, 1 May 1816, Mss Eur F140/45.
50 Extract, Secret Consultations, 25 May 1816, IOR/G/12/196. Bannerman acted as official interpreter for the factory when the others were away on the embassy.
51 Staunton, Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences, 9–11.
52 Gao, “The ‘Inner Kowtow Controversy’,” 602, 604–6.
53 Ellis, Journal of the Proceedings, 421.
54 Davis, Sketches of China, vol. 1, 185–6.
55 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 67.
56 Ibid., 84.
57 Letter to Rev. George Burder, in Morrison and Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and Labours, vol. 1, 445–6; Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 19.
58 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 66, 92–3; Morrison and Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and Labours, 456–57.
59 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 93; Morrison and Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and Labours, 456. See also Ellis, Journal of the Proceedings, 282–3.
60 Davis, Sketches of China, vol. 1, 79.
61 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 65.
62 Staunton, Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences, 75–6.
63 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 50.
64 Staunton, Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences, 225, 437.
65 Davis, Sketches, vol. 2, 64, 149.
66 Morrison, Memoir of Principal Occurrences, 95–6.
67 Ellis, Journal, 420–1, 428–9.
68 Coates, Macao and the British, 122.
69 Peers, “Amherst, William Pitt.”
70 Healey, “Ellis, Sir Henry.”
71 Jackson, “Abel, Clarke.”
72 Barrett, Singular Listlessness, 58–6; Baigent, “Manning, Thomas.”
73 Davis, Sketches of China, vol. 1, 5–6.
74 Munn, “Davis, Sir John Francis”; Reynolds, “Davis, Sir John Francis.” See also Wagner, “Sketching China,” and Kitson, Forging Romantic China, 106–23.
75 28 Nov 1820, Morrison to Amherst, Mss Eur 140/50b.
76 15 Nov 1818, Staunton to Amherst, Mss Eur F140/50a.
77 Morse, Chronicles of the East India Company, vol. 4, 87, 102, 122.
78 3 Jan 1817, Staunton to Jane Staunton, Staunton Letters.
79 5 Jan 1817, Staunton's application for leave, IOR/G/12/205.
80 8 Jan 1817, Staunton Letters. Amherst and Staunton left Canton together and had originally planned to sail for England on the same ship, but Amherst wanted to stay and see Macao.
81 Davenport-Hines, “Staunton, Sir George Thomas.”
82 Staunton, Memoirs of the Chief Incidents, 73–4.
83 Staunton, Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences; Ellis, Journal of the Proceedings; Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences.
84 Davis, The Chinese, vol. 1, 1.
85 Hall, Voyage to Loo-Choo.
86 McLeod, Narrative of a Voyage.
87 St. André, “Travelling Toward True Translation.”
88 Min, “Narrating the Far East,” 162.
89 4 Jan 1817, Amherst to chairman and deputy chairman of Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/197. Also in IOR/G/12/198. Amherst expressed similar sentiments later: 3 March 1817, Amherst to Canning, IOR/G/12/198.
90 22 March 1817, Amherst to Canning, IOR/G/12/198.
91 21 April 1817, Amherst to Canning, IOR/G/12/197. Also in IOR/G/12/198.
92 3 May 1817, Amherst to chairman and deputy chairman of Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/198.
93 3 Jan 1817, Staunton to chairman of Court of Directors, IOR/G/12/196. Also in IOR/G/12/197.
94 3 Jan 1817, Staunton to mother, Staunton Letters.
95 Staunton, Memoirs of the Chief Incidents, 67, 71–2.
96 28 July 1817, Staunton Letters.
97 Davis, Chinese, vol. 1, 98, 132–3; vol. 2, 161–2.
98 Davis, Sketches, vol. 2, 161.
99 7 Jan 1817, Metcalfe, Cotton, and Urmston to Amherst, IOR/G/12/196.
100 Morrison, Memoir of the Principal Occurrences, 9.
101 13 April 1817, unknown author to Amherst, Mss Eur F140/39.
102 Asiatic Journal 5.25 (January 1818): 1.
103 10 April 1818, in Morrison and Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and Labours, vol. 1, 522–3.
104 Staunton, Memoirs of the Chief Incidents, 67–8.
