‘Today We Will Milk Dogs!’ (Nhasi tinokama imbwa)* – A Socio-political History of African-owned Dogs and the Dog Tax in Southern Rhodesia, c.1900–1950

ABSTRACT

We examine the curious historical phenomenon: suddenly, at the start of the twentieth century, dogs suddenly began to matter to the colonial state. To find out why, we examine the role of dogs and the dog-tax in Southern Rhodesian by exploring the larger power struggles over the living landscape of people and animals. We examine a six decade period from the early to mid-twentieth century to delineate shifts under a changing colonial regime. We trouble the dominant historiographical narrative that ties dog tax policies to colonial labour policies, arguing that Southern Rhodesian authorities used the dog tax to preserve the grasslands for white commercial cattle farmers. We analyse the contending political interests that pitted officials in different institutions against each other, and show how this exacerbated racial, class, generational and gender conflicts. We trace the operation of the ordinance and the changing strategies of African dog-owners dealing with it, explaining the important role of dogs in the socio-economic milieu. The varied uses that people had for dogs reveals how these animals mapped onto the Africans’ social worlds – of pastoralism, and mutable but enduring ideas about the spiritual world. Essentially, we ask how we might take dogs seriously in thinking about the history of Southern Rhodesia to extend our understanding of African-settler interactions. In doing so, we make a case for a social and political history through the stories of Africans and their dogs.

KEYWORDS:

• Dog tax
• colonial state
• African dog-owners
• Southern Rhodesia
• Zimbabwe

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Vambe, An Ill-Fated People, 18.

2 Mhuri Yekwa Gwenhure, “Unosevenzepiko,” Mbira Singles Collection https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CUL3gAppA98&t=721s, accessed on 26 August 2019.

3 Lewis, “The Bondelswarts Rebellion of 1922,” 62; Emmett, “Popular Resistance in Namibia, 1920–1925,” 6–48; Gordon, “Fido,” 240–54; Moore, “Canines, Carnivores, Capitalism, Colonialism.”

4 Tropp, “Dogs,” 145–72.

5 For colonial control regimes over people and their animals see Beinart, “Night of the Jackal,” 172–206; Van Sittert, “Keeping the Enemy at Bay,” 333–56; Mutwira, “Southern Rhodesian Wildlife Policy,” 250–62; Jacobs, “The Great Bophuthatswana Donkey Massacre,” 485–507.

6 Here we allude to James Scott’s delineation of the self-consciously modern state confidently designing society on scientific principles. Scott, Seeing Like a State.

7 Staves, “Chattel Property Rules and the Construction of Englishness,” 140; Tague, “Eighteenth-Century English Debates on Dog Tax,” 901–20.

8 Burton, “The Taxation of Africans,” 47–55; Manson and Mbenga, “The African National Congress in the Western Transvaal,” 472–93.

9 They, however, attribute more weight to other causes such as poll tax. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion, 132–3; Redding, “A Blood-Stained Tax,” 37.

10 Thompson, “The Zulu Rebellion of 1906,” 533–57; Marks, Reluctant Rebellion, 136; Redding, “A Blood-Stained Tax,” 37.

11 Gordon, “Fido,” 240–54; Emmett, “Popular Resistance,” 6–48; Lewis, “The Bondelswarts,” 62; Moore, “Canines, Carnivores, Capitalism.”

12 Beinart, “Settler Accumulation in East Griqualand,” 289–300.

13 Tropp, “Dogs,” 456.

14 Gordon, “Fido,” 240.

15 This has enduring parallels in southern Africa – right up until recent years a powerful economic bloc could label the livelihoods of a less powerful group (and their animals) as having deleterious ‘unnatural’ effect on the natural environment. Jacobs, “The Great Bophuthatswana Donkey Massacre,” 485–507.

16 Proposed Dog Tax, Municipal Executive council, Dog Tax, 5 May 1902; CNC Bulawayo to The Chief Secretary, Salisbury, “Imposition of a general Dog Tax,” 18 February 1902, T2/29/31, National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ).

17 The connection they made between African-owned dogs and grass burning was emphasised in 1902 and 1905 NAD investigations, in 1905, 1907, 1911 and 1912 Legislative Council debates and in the various veld fires conferences that were held between 1902 and 1938. ‘Summary of the Record of the first Anti-Veld Fire Conference,’ 26 April 1938, S1217/12; Native Commissioner (NC) Essexvale to CNC Bulawayo, “Employment of Special detectives: Re to report on grass fires in Umzingwane District,” 17 September 1909, NB3/1/16; Minutes of Conference of Superintendents of Natives, 3 February 1909, N6/1/1/1; A. Hodson to Director of Agriculture, Salisbury, 27 August 1912, GF 2/1/6, NAZ; Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 38–40.

18 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 28 April 1905, 12–13; “Landowner’s Association and Farmers Association Monthly General Meeting,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 27 May 1905; NC Hartley to the CNC, “Confidential: Proposed Dog Tax,” 25 March 1905, T2/29/31, NAZ.

19 The High Commissioner’s Proclamation in 1898 set up the Native Department and delineated the part Native Commissioners were to play in African society. See Shutt, “The Natives Are Getting Out of Hand,” 653–72.

20 NC Bulawayo to the Private Secretary to his Honour the Administrator, Salisbury, “Suggested Dog Tax,” 3 April 1905, T2/29/31, NAZ.

21 The Bulawayo Chronicle, 6 September 1902, “Rabies at the Kraal: An Interesting Case of Hydrophobia.” NAZ N/3/1/1-5, Native Affairs, March 1906–January 1899, CNC to NC Charter to, “Rabies: Enkeeldoorn,” 18 June 1906.

22 NAZ A2/1/16, General, 1902, Chief Secretary, Administrator, to the Secretary, Rhodesia Chamber of Mines, Bulawayo, 15 November 1902. NAZ S2710/1/2, Veterinary Department General, 4 January 1953–6 January 1955, Director of Veterinary Service, “Rabies in Southern Rhodesia.”

23 Southern Rhodesia Legislative Debates, 1st Session, 3rd Council, 28 April 1905. Proposed Dog Tax, 12–13.

24 NAZ N9/4/15 April 1903 –July 1903 NCs Monthly, NC Lomagundi monthly report, April 1903. NAZ N9/4/14, Native Commissioners Monthly January 1903–May 1903, NC Lomagundi monthly report, February 1903.

25 NC Lomagundi to Chief Native Commissioner (CNC), “Imposition of Dog tax. Report Forwarding,” 29 March 1905, T2/29/31, NAZ.

26 NC Ndanga’s monthly report, June 1903, N3//17/19, NAZ.

27 NC Umtali’s monthly report, July, 1903; NC Ndanga’s monthly report, June. 1903, N9/4/15, NAZ; NC Chibi’s monthly report, 28 February 1907, N9/4/20, NAZ.

28 Bulawayo Chronicle, 20 September 1902, “Rabies and Natives.”

29 NAZ N3/1/17-19 Interdepartmental Correspondence, Ndanga Native Commissioner 1893–1907, Assistant NC, Ndanga to the Acting CNC, “Attitude of Natives,” 2 March 1904.

30 NAZ N4/1/2, General (native Affairs), January 1904–December 1906, Acting CNC to All NCs Mashonaland, “Rabies: Government Notice No.163 of 1906,” 22 September 1906.

31 NC Mazoe to the CNC Salisbury, 22 January 1907, N3/1/13, NAZ; W.E Thomas to the CNC Bulawayo, “Confidential,” 1 April 1904, NB3/1/1,NAZ; NC Selukwe to the CNC Bulawayo, 19 January 1903, NB1/1/19, NAZ; Acting CNC to NC Mazoe, 11 February 1907, N3/1/13, NAZ.

32 Mwatwara and Swart, “If Our Cattle Die, We Eat Them but These White People Bury Them and Burn Them!,” 137.

33 NAZ N4/1/2, General (native Affairs), January 1904–December 1906, (Sgd) P.L. Moore, Acting Medical Director to the Secretary, Law Department, Salisbury, 9.3.1906. NAZ, T2/29/31, Dog Tax, Minutes No. 1481, proposed Dog Tax, 25/04/05, Rhodesian land Owner and Farmer’s Association to the Secretary of Agriculture, Salisbury, 4 April 1905.

34 Phimister, “Discourse and the Discipline of Historical Context,”263–75.

35 Tropp, “Dogs,” 145–72.

36 Waller, “‘Clean’ and ‘Dirty’,” 45–80.

37 NC Charter’s Annual Reports 1913, 31 December 1912; NC Mtoko’s Annual Reports, 31 December 1912, N9/1/15; NC Umtali to CNC, Salisbury, “Confidential: Southern Rhodesia Dog Tax Ordinance, Proposed,” 25 March 1905, T2/29/31, NAZ.

38 Moguerane, “Black Landlords, their Tenants, and the Natives Land Act,” 251.

39 Rhodesian Land Owner and Farmer’s Association to the Secretary of Agriculture, Salisbury, 4 April 1905, T2/29/31, NAZ; “Landowner’s and Farmers’ Association Monthly Meeting,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 1 April 1905.

40 For parallels in broader southern Africa, see Waller, “‘Clean’ and ‘Dirty’”; Mwatwara and Swart, “Better Breeds?” 333–50.

41 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Vol. 1, Fourth Session, Third Council, 1907, “Grass Fires,” 29; Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, 1899–1908, Vol. 1, Third Session, Third Council, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 1907, 40.

42 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Volume 1, Fourth Session, Third Council, “Grass Fires,” 29.

43 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Volume. 1, Third Session, Third Council, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 1907, 38–40.

44 NC Ndanga to the Superintendent of Natives Victoria, “Observations on the Natives Affairs Commission’s Report,” 15 July 1911, N3/6/1-2, NAZ; Of course, hunting did occur but mainly as a side-effect: the Shona proverb tsuro haaponi murutsva kaviri (the hare cannot dodge [dogs] in a burnt veld twice) bears testimony to the local perception of the effectiveness of burning in hunting.

45 CNC to the Secretary, Department of Administrator, 3 December 1919, N3/33/7, NAZ.

46 Kaufman, Koehler, and Butler, “External Parasites on Beef Cattle,” 8.

47 Editorial, “Cattle Owned by Natives,” 663; CNC to the Secretary, Department of Administrator, 3 December 1919, N3/33/7, NAZ.

48 NC Essexvale to CNC Bulawayo, “Employment of Special Detectives: Re to Report on Grass Fires in Umzingwane District,” 17 Sep. 1909, NB3/1/16, NAZ.

49 Summary of the Record of the first Anti-Veld Fire Conference, Salisbury, 26 April 1938, S1217/12, NAZ.

50 NC Essexvale to CNC Bulawayo, “Employment of Special Detectives: Re to Report on Grass Fires in Umzingwane District,” 17 September 1909, NB3/1/16, NAZ.

51 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Volume.1, Third Session, Third Council, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 1907, 40.

52 Annual Report for Insiza District, 1919, N9/1/21, NAZ.

53 Samasuwo, “There Is Something about Cattle,” 4–13.

54 Summary of the Record of the first Anti-Veld Fire Conference, Salisbury, 26 April 1938, S1217/12, NAZ.

55 Scott, Weapons of the Weak, XV-XVIII.

56 Grass Fires Conference, 27 August 1912, GF 2/1/6, NAZ.

57 Jollie, The Real Rhodesia, 132–3. In fact, Ethel Tawse Jollie, the first female member of the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council, blamed livestock farmers, mostly of Afrikaner extraction, who hunted for the pot (just like Africans) for grass burning out of desperation. Admittedly, Jollie was anti-Unionist and anti-Afrikaner but her claims are supported by police arrests. “News of the District,” Rhodesian Herald, 25 August 1922.

58 Samasuwo, “There Is Something,” 24.

59 Phimister, “Meat and Monopolies,” 399.

60 Palmer, “The Agricultural History of Rhodesia,” 233.

61 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Proceedings and Ordinances, “Dog Tax Ordinance,” 14 May 1912, 120–7. Some still maintained the primary aim of the tax to be against rabies outbreaks, “Agricultural Union,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 10 May 1912.

62 Minutes of Conference of Superintendents of Natives, 3 February 1909, N6/1/1/1, NAZ.

63 NC Nyamandlovu to the CNC Bulawayo, 16 August 1911, A3/3/18, NAZ.

64 Of course, dogs had long required licensing in urban centres like Salisbury. Police could shoot unregistered dogs.

65 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, ‘dog tax ordinance.’

66 “Country Notes,” Rhodesia Herald, 21 November 1912.

67 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, “Dog Tax Ordinance,” 14 May 1912, 123–4.

68 New Zealand, Parliamentary Debates, “Financial Statement”; Gordon, “Fido,” 245.

69 Moguerane, “Black Landlords,” 251.

70 “The Budget,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 17 May 1912.

71 “Legislative Council,” Rhodesia Herald, 17 May 1912.

72 “Minutes of the Proceedings of the Legislative Council and Ordinances,” Second Session, Fifth Council, “Ordinance No.8,” 6 May 1912, 3, 6, 74.

73 “Dog Tax Ordinance – Getting at the Natives,” Rhodesia Herald, 12 April 1912.

74 Minutes of the Proceedings of the Legislative Council and Ordinances, Second Session, Fifth Council, “Ordinance No.8,” 6 May. 1912.

75 CNC’s Office to All NCs in Mashonaland, “Dog Tax Ordinance No.8 of 1912,” 2 April 1913, N4/1/5, NAZ.

76 Office of the CNC Salisbury to All NCs, “Circular No. 4/13: Dog Tax,” 27 November 1913, N1/1/6, NAZ.

77 NC Gutu to Superintendent of Natives Victoria, “Dog Taxation-Location ordinance,” 1 October 1908, NVG 2/1/5, NAZ.

78 Rennie, “White Farmers, Black Tenants and Landlord Legislation,” 86–98.

79 NC Inyanga to the Superintendent of Natives Umtali, January 1912, NUC 2/3/2, NAZ.

80 NC Inyanga to the Superintendent of Natives Umtali, January 1912, NUC 2/3/2, NAZ.

81 NC Inyanga to CNC, “Dog Tax,” 28 January 1913, NUC 2/3/3; NC Annual Reports for Inyanga District for 1913, N9/1/16, NAZ.

82 “The Police Commissioner’s Report,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 7 May 1915.

83 “Beatrice,” Rhodesia Herald, 28 July 1922.

84 CNC to District NCs, “Circular No. B. 36,” 25 June 1913, NB4/1/5, NAZ.

85 NC Gutu to Secretary, The Law Department, Salisbury, “Dog Tax Ordinance No.8 of 1912,” 10 December 1913, NVG 2/1/8, NAZ.

86 CNC to District NCs, “Circular No. B. 36 of 1913,” 25 June 1913, NB4/1/5, NAZ.

87 Native Department Conference, “Minutes of Meetings,” 10 December 1915, S138/37; Minutes of the conference of Superintendent of Natives, Salisbury, 8–11 December 1915, N6/2/1, NAZ.

88 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Proceedings and Ordinances, “The Budget Speech,” 21 April 1913, 266–7.

89 “NC’s Report of Meetings of Chiefs and Headmen in Melsetter District to the Administrator,” S1561/10/1, NAZ.

90 Moyana, “Underdevelopment in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia,” 281.

91 “The Dog Tax: When is it due: High Court Ruling,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 30 June, 1916; Treasury Circular No.12 of 1915 to all Civil Commissioners, “Dog Tax 1916,” 3 July 1916, N4/1/7, NAZ.

92 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative Council Debates, Vol. 4, “The Budget,” 11 April 1917, 14–5.

93 In the early 1920s the fine for having unlicensed dogs was the same as for hunting game illegally: 10s or a week’s hard labour. Grass burning could range from £2 to £5 or a month in jail. “Country Notes,” Rhodesian Herald, 27 October 1922.

94 “CNC’s review of NC’s Reports for February 1913,” N9/4/26/1, NAZ.

95 Ranger, Peasant Consciousness.

96 “NC Makoni’s Annual Reports for 1913,” N9/1/16, NAZ.

97 “NC Makoni’s Report for January 1913,” N9/4/26/1, NAZ.

98 Mwatwara and Swart, “Better Breeds?” 346–9.

99 “NC Makoni’s Annual Report for 1913,” N9/1/16, NAZ; “NC Charter’s Annual Reports 1913,” N9/1/15, NAZ.

100 Posselt, “Life on the By-Ways of Rhodesia,” 25–9; CNC Salisbury to all Native Department Stations in S Rhodesia, “Entry of Dogs to Portuguese Territory,” 22 July 1930; Office of the CNC Salisbury to all Native Stations in Southern Rhodesia, “Importation of Native-owned dogs from Southern Rhodesia into Northern Rhodesia,” 28 August 1933, S2397/3, NAZ.

101 “The Kennel,” Rhodesia Herald, 26 January 1912; “Local Successes in the Dog Section,” Rhodesia Herald, 9 June 1922; advert, Rhodesia Herald, 17 February 1922.

102 “Police Court: Stealing a Greyhound,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 25 March 1910; NC Chibi, G. Forestal to W. J. A van Breda, Selukwe, NVC 1/1/9, NAZ.

103 “Gutu dog pulled into the river by a crocodile,” African Weekly, 5 September 1956; “Imbga,” Bantu Mirror, 13 November 1937.

104 “Dog Killed for Stealing Eggs,” The African Daily News, 11 January 1958.

105 CNC to the Superintendent of Natives Victoria, “Dog Tax Ordinance 1912 (Confidential),” 18 December 1912, N3/29/3, NAZ.

106 Acting NC Gokwe to the Superintendent of Natives Gwelo, “Season’s Prospects,” 3 March 1916; NC Belingwe to the Superintendent of Natives, 19 June 1915, N3/24/5-7, NAZ.

107 Acting NC Gokwe to the Superintendent of Natives Gwelo, 14 April 1916, N3/24/5-7, NAZ.

108 CNC to the Superintendent of Natives Victoria, “Dog Tax Ordinance 1912 (Confidential),” N3/29/3, NAZ.

109 Mutwira, “Southern Rhodesian Wildlife Policy,” 259; “Suspension of the Game law Consolidation Ordinance, 1906. Game in Classes ‘A’ & ‘B’ in Sebungwe District” 22 May 1916, N3/24/5-7, NAZ.

110 Civil Commissioner Hartley to the Secretary, Department of the Administrator, 27 Apr. 1915, N3/24/5-7, NAZ.

111 White, Speaking with Vampires; Israel, “The War of Lions,” 155–74; Tropp, “Locust invasion and tensions,” 113–28; Tropp, “Dogs,” 451–72.

112 “Report of the Native Affairs Committee of Enquiry, 1910–1911,” Presented to the Legislative Council, Salisbury, 1911, 27.

113 NC Insiza to the Superintendent of Natives Gwelo, “Suggestion of suspension of Game laws on Native Reserves,” 17 June 1915, N3/24/5-7, NAZ.

114 ICU Conference Bulawayo, S1561 C62, NAZ.

115 Southern Rhodesia, “Report of the Chief Native Commissioner to the Legislative Council,” Salisbury, 1928, p.8.

116 NC Mrewa’s Annual Report, 1923, S235-501, NAZ.

117 Annual Native Commissioner’s Reports, 1923, S235-501, NAZ.

118 From Davis and Döpcke, “Survival and Accumulation in Gutu,” 64–98, 73.

119 Southern Rhodesia, “Report of the Chief Native Commissioner to the Legislative Council,” Salisbury, 1933, 8–9.

120 Reports of District Native Commissioners for the quarter ended 31 Mar. 1948; NC Buhera’s Annual Report, 31 March 1948, S1618/16, NAZ.

121 Annual District Native Commissioners, 31 December 1948, S235/514/2, NAZ.

122 District Native Commissioners’ Annual Reports, 1931, 1932, 1933, S235/509, NAZ.

123 NC Melsetter’s Annual Report, 31 December 1932, S235/510, NAZ.

124 District Native Commissioners’ Annual Reports, December 1935, S235/514/2, NAZ.

125 “Dogs fur horror and the Shonas,” The Sunday Mail, 9 April 1972.

126 NC Chilimanzi’s Annual Report, 31 December 1935, S235/514/2, NAZ.

127 Southern Rhodesia Native Affairs Association, Z. Chirimuuta J.J Zata (President and Chairman) to the CNC Salisbury, 8 October 1931, S2584/73, NAZ.

128 Southern Rhodesia Native Affairs Association, S2584/73, NAZ.

129 ICU Conference Bulawayo, 3–6 April 1931, S1561 C62, NAZ.

130 Legislation Affecting Natives, Superintendent of Natives Bulawayo to CNC Salisbury, “Masoja: ICU,” 16 February 1931, S138/55, NAZ.

131 Jollie, The Real Rhodesia, 255.

132 Secretary for Native Affairs to the Editor, Rhodesian Publications, 5 February 1936, S1542/L11; CNC Salisbury Circular Minute No. 16, “Evasion of Payment of Dog Tax,” 22 May 1935, S2397/3, NAZ.

133 Hadebe, “The songs of Lovemore Majayivana and Ndebele Oral Literature,” 21.

134 NC Makoni’s Annual Report, December 1929, S235/507, NAZ.

135 NC Chilimanzi’s Annual Report, December 1932, S235/510, NAZ.

136 Mhuri yekwa Genhure, “Unosevenzepiko,” Mbira Singles Collection. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CUL3gAppA98&t=721s, accessed on 26 Aug. 2019.

137 Secretary for Native Affairs to the Acting Minister for Native Affairs, “Meeting of Manyika Headmen,” 5 July 1937, S1542 C6/3, NAZ.

138 NC Umtali to CNC Salisbury, “Collection of money by Chief Mutasa,” 15 June 1937, S1542 C6/3, NAZ.

139 Hannan, The Standard Shona Dictionary, 113; Interview with Randazha Mamire (born 1909) conducted by Dawson Munjeri, Mudzimuirema Kraal, 27 April and 1 June 1978, AOH 38, NAZ.

140 Chavhunduka, Kuchengeta Imbwa, 63.

141 Interview with Sekuru Mafuro, Marange, 23 December 2018.

142 Interview with Sylvester Muradzi, Tandi, 20 December 2018.

143 McGregor, “Woodland Resources: Ecology, Politics and Ideology,” 379–80.

144 Acting CNC to All NCs Mashonaland, “Rabies: Government Notice No.163 of 1906,” 22 September 1906, N4/1/2; NC Charter to Gutu-Chilimanzi, “Rex vs Manyanga Mlimo Messenger,” 7 March 1904, NVG 1/1/3; NC Selukwe to the CNC Bulawayo, “Killing of hornless cattle and stock,” 19 January 1903, NB1/1/19, NAZ.

145 Burbridge, “In Spirit-Bound Rhodesia,” 25; Macharangwanda, “Mudzimu, Shabe, ngozi and other spirits,” 9; Hugo, “The Mashona Spirits,” 52–8; Nyachega, “Beyond War, Violence, and Suffering,” 99; Randazha Mamire, (born 1909), Interview at Mudzimuirema Kraal, Chihota TTL, interviewed by Dawson Munjeri, 27 April and 1 June 1978, AOH 38, NAZ.

146 Interview with Nyasha Mercy Muradzi, Tandi Communal Areas, 20 January 2018.

147 Burbridge, “In Spirit-Bound,” 25; Macharangwanda, “Mudzimu,” 9.

148 Hodza and Fortune, Shona Praise Poetry, 235.

149 Interview conducted by Dawson Munjeri with Chief Jeremiah Sikireta, Chinhoyi District, 15 Dec 1982, AOH/86, NAZ.

150 Elliott, “Witchcraft in the Lowveld.”

151 Nyathi, Zimbabwe’s Cultural Heritage, 49.

152 Southern Rhodesia, Legislative debates, First Session, Third Council, “Proposed Dog Tax,” 28 April 1905.

153 NC Inyanga to CNC Salisbury, “Rabies,” 7 November 1902, N1/1/1/4; Interview conducted by Dawson Munjeri with Patrick Gwara Parazungu, Beatrice Cottages, Harare, 24 May 1979, AOH/56, NAZ.

154 Gelfand, “Chikwambo (Runhare),” 60.

155 Mbizvo, “Mashona Proverbs,” 29; Hunt, “Some Karanga Riddles,” Jones, “Sindebele Proverbs.”

156 Hunt, “Some Notes on the Names of Dogs,” 67–73.

157 T. B. Msimuko, “A Dog’s Conference.” The African Parade, December 1953, p. 51.

158 Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 17.

159 NC Mazoe’s Monthly Report, Jun. 1948, S1618/16, NAZ.

160 Interview with Chisandu Gumbo conducted by Dawson Munjeri, Msengezi Purchase Area, 8 June 1977, AOH/57, NAZ.

161 Later, the authority of chiefs over land was entrenched in the Tribal Trust Land Bill of 1965, which Tribal Land Authorities (majengetavhu) to control the use of land in African areas under ‘customary’ law.

162 NC Darwin’s Quarterly Report, 30 September 1948; NC Mrewa‘s Quarterly Report, 30 June 1948; NC Gutu's Quarterly Report, 30 June 1948, S1618, NAZ.

163 NC Marandellas’ Quarterly Report, 31 December 1947, S1618, NAZ.

164 Weinrich, Chiefs and Councils in Rhodesia, 208.

165 Lawrence Vambe interviewed by I. J. Johnstone, Harare, 1, 8, and 13 June 1983, ORAL/233, NAZ.

166 Alexander, The Unsettled Land; Mazarire, “A Social and Political History of Chishanga,” 255–92.

167 Gordon, “Fido,” 240–54; Emmett, “Popular Resistance”; Lewis, “The Bondelswarts.”

168 Tropp, “Dogs,” 456.

169 Vambe, An Ill-Fated People, 16, 18.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the University of Stellenbosch.