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ABSTRACT
The rapid collapse of European empires in Africa transformed the politics of the white settler dominated states at the south of the continent. In what briefly remained ‘British Central Africa’, the rise of sovereign states created a new sphere of political competition between white officials and their anti-colonial nationalist opponents. White authorities, while perturbed by imperial retreat and committed to racial discrimination at home, nonetheless attempted to cultivate the emerging African nations. After some initial diplomatic success in west Africa, increasingly assertive African leaders became more overtly aligned with the cause of African nationalism in Southern Rhodesia, the pre-eminent British settler colony in the region. The presence of white settler officials at African independence celebrations generally became unacceptable. Conversely, the colony’s anti-colonial nationalists, initially excluded from independence ceremonies, quickly became the preferred diplomatic interlocutor at these events. This transformation forestalled settler attempts to establish diplomatic footholds in majority-ruled African states, but also spurred intra-nationalist factionalism. This analysis adds new insights on the rise of white unilateralism, the process by which the ‘wind of change’ reached southern Africa, and underscores the swift radicalisation of pan-African diplomacy.
Acknowledgements
The Research Council of Zimbabwe and Institute of Development Studies at the National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe, facilitated fieldwork in Zimbabwe. Financial support from the British Institute in Eastern Africa and the Royal Historical Society supported this research. Alois Mlambo offered helpful feedback on initial drafts.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Amoh, “Dilemma of Diasporic Africans,” 548–549; Gaines, American Africans, 4–5; Getachew, Worldmaking After Empire, 1–2.
2 Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom, 107.
3 Getachew; Worldmaking After Empire, 1; Cooper, “Possibility and Constraint,” 168.
4 Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, 29.
5 The Federal parliament had token black representation. Southern Rhodesia’s legislature was all-white until 1962.
6 Grilli, Nkrumaism and African Nationalism, 66.
7 Murphy, BDEEP vB9: Central Africa, is an important collection of primary source materials documenting the rise and fall of this federation.
8 West, “Global Africa,” 101–102.
9 “Lusaka is Hotbed of Intrigue as ‘Freedom’ Nears.” The Rhodesia Herald (hereafter ‘TRH’), 23 October 1964.
10 Larmer, “Nation-Making at the Border,” 145.
11 Khan, “Kenya’s South Africans,”; Passemiers, Decolonisation and Regional Geopolitics.
12 Scarnecchia, “The Congo Crisis,”; Hughes, “Fighting for White Rule,”; Marmon, “Operation Refugee.”
13 Groves, “Transnational Networks.”
14 Rupiya, “Internationalization of Zimbabwe’s Struggle,”; Scarnecchia, Race and Diplomacy
15 Willems, “Zimbabwe Will Never Be.”
16 Lentz, “2010 Independence Jubilees,”; N’Guessan, “Independence is Not Given.”
17 Onslow, “Freedom at Midnight.”
18 Holland, Williams, and Barringer (eds.), Iconography of Independence. The Round Table special issue is Volume 97, Number 398.
19 de Meneses and McNamara, The White Redoubt.
20 Miller, African Volk; Pfister, Apartheid South Africa.
21 Miller, “Africanising Apartheid.”
22 Graham, South African Foreign Policy; Macmillan, The Lusaka Years; Ellis, External Mission; Manghezi, The Maputo Connection.
23 High Commissioner UK to CRO, telegram, 6 April 1960, DO35/10481, The National Archives, Kew, UK.
24 The Federation’s black diplomats in Nigeria included Mike Hove, a high commissioner, and Kingsley Dube and Caleb Somkence, information secretaries.
25 “Powers and Responsibilities of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Field of External Affairs,” undated, F236/CX 70/1/2, National Archives of Zimbabwe (hereafter ‘NAZ’), Harare, Zimbabwe.
26 Hyam, “Geopolitical Origins”; Cohen, Politics and Economics of Decolonization, Marmon, “‘Bogey Bogey Stuff’.” Gold Coast was the colonial name for Ghana.
27 Welensky, “Development of Central Africa,” 10.
28 Lord Malvern to Lord Home, 5 April 1956, Box 1, Folder 5, Gann-Duignan Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
29 Tredgold, The Rhodesia that was My Life, 229.
30 Paver, His Own Oppressor, 67.
31 “Visit by the Minister of Home Affairs and Lady Barrow to the Gold Coast on the Occasion of the Grant of Independence,” 2 May 1957, MS/850/17, NAZ.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 ‘Speech by the Minister of Home Affairs Broadcast from Ghana Radio, Thursday, 27th February, 1957’ [sic – the speech was broadcast on Thursday, 28 February], MS/850/17, NAZ.
35 “Visit by the Minister of Home Affairs and Lady Barrow.”
36 Ibid.
37 “Mr. Todd Impressed by Behaviour of Ghanaians.” Central African Daily News (hereafter ‘ADN’), 20 March 1957.
38 “Agricultural Development in Northern Ghana.” African Parade, June 1960.
39 “Visit by the Minister of Home Affairs and Lady Barrow.”
40 Ibid.
41 “Speech Given by Mrs. Garfield Todd to a Combined Meeting of Women’s Institutes Held at Balla, Balla, Southern Rhodesia, on Monday 22nd July, 1957,” MS/1082/5/5, NAZ.
42 “Visit by the Minister of Home Affairs and Lady Barrow.”
43 Ibid.
44 Mushonga to Hatch, 21 April 1957, MS 730/1, NAZ
45 Mlambo, “Second World War to UDI,” 104.
46 Nkomo, Story of My Life, 72.
47 “Youth League Thanks Britain.” ADN, 6 March 1957.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid.
50 “Forgotten Federation.” Radar, 22 July 1961.
51 “Ghana Day.” ADN, 5 March 1957.
52 Former Congressite, letter to editor, Bantu Mirror, 23 March 1957.
53 “All-night Dance in Lusaka.” ADN, 11 March 1957.
54 “Nyandoro Tells of His Experience in Ghana.” ADN, 20 March 1958.
55 Ibid.
56 Nyandoro to Wicken, 30 July 1958, MS/730/1, NAZ.
57 “Hove is to Visit Ghana.” ADN, 24 June 1960.
58 “Keyi Due to Leave for Ghana.” ADN, 2 November 1961.
59 “Reports from External Missions: Lagos Demonstration on the Death of Lumumba,” 1 March 1961, F236/CX100/29/1, NAZ
60 “External Affairs Digest No. 1 of 1961,” 5 January 1961, F236/CX100/29/1, NAZ
61 “Our President Attends Zik’s Installation.” Democratic Voice, 19 November 1960.
62 “External Affairs Digest No. 1.”
63 “Reports from External Missions, Lagos 18/62,” 1 November 1962, F236/CX100/29/3, NAZ; Debates of the Federal Assembly, 26 June 1961, col. 5.
64 Benoy to Heathcote, 15 September 1958, F165/18/1, NAZ.
65 ‘Guidance Notes for HBM Vice – Consul for Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Elisabethville,’ 15 June 1960, CX/100/28/1, NAZ.
66 Marmon, “Operation Refugee.”
67 Smith, Bitter Harvest, 44.
68 “Exinform No. 91, The Congo Situation,” 14 July 1960, F236/CX100/28/1, NAZ.
69 “The Belgian Congo – Subject Paper,” 22 June 1960, F236/CX 100/28/1, NAZ.
70 Ibid; “Exinform No. 88,” 23 June 1960, F236/CX100/28/1, NAZ.
71 External, Salisbury to Britain, Leopoldville, telegram, 29 June 1960, F236/CX 100/28/1, NAZ.
72 “Exinform No. 89: Congo Situation,” 30 June 1960, F236/CX100/28/1, NAZ.
73 Ibid.
74 “Exinform No. 30,” 27 July 1961, F136/CX100/28F, NAZ.
75 “Report on a Visit to Lepoldville,” KH Towsey, 26 July 1961, F136/CX100/28F, NAZ.
76 KH Towsey to WF Nicholas, 11 April 1963, F136/CX100/28F, NAZ.
77 “Exiled ANC Men May Operate from Congo.” The Chronicle, 3 February 1960.
78 “Long Live Lumumba Cries at Meeting.” ADN, 2 July 1960.
79 Cox, Pan-Africanism in Practice, 65.
80 Shamuyarira, Crisis in Rhodesia, 178; Passemiers, Decolonisation and Regional Geopolitics, 86.
81 “Sir Malcolm for Congo.” ADN, 18 June 1960.
82 Debates of the Federal Assembly, 20 July 1960, col. 1657.
83 “Federal Representation in Tanganyika: Memorandum Presented by the Minister of External Affairs,” 12 May 1961, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
84 “Representation in Tanganyika, Exinform No. 26,” 29 June 1961, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
85 Parry to de Quehen, 21 June 1961, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
86 Macleod to High Commissioner, 6 July 1961, F236/CX 70/3.
87 “New NDP ‘Foreign’ Office.” ADN, 20 July 1961.
88 John Chirimbani, telephone interview by author, 11 May 2021.
89 “‘Uhuru Day’ in Tanganyika: PM States Policy.” ADN, 8 December 1961.
90 “Federation Flag is One of Three Absent.” TRH, 9 December 1961.
91 “Yet Another Nation in Africa!” Radar, 25 November 1961.
92 “Sandys Dodges Nkomo’s Plea.” TRH, 11 December 1961.
93 “Notable Absentees.” ADN, 9 December 1961.
94 “Tanganyika Gains Independence.” TRH, 11 December 1961.
95 “Welensky Talks to the Daily News.” ADN, 30 June 1962.
96 Towsey to Secretary, 3 August 1962, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
97 Milton to Towsey, 26 July 1962, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
98 Ibid.
99 Ibid.
100 Welensky to Obote, 29 August 1962, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
101 Toswey to Lamb, 17 September 1962, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
102 “Uganda’s First Premier Attacks Federal Regime.” TRH, 10 October 1962.
103 Ibid.
104 “Nkomo Can Still Lead in Politics if … ” ADN, 9 October 1962.
105 Magezi to Welensky, 31 October 1962, F236/CX70/3, NAZ.
106 Ake, Democracy and Development, 4.
107 Marmon, “Division to Save,” 374–382.
108 Shamuyarira, Crisis in Rhodesia, 176.
109 Marmon, “‘Kith and Kin.’”
110 “Nkomo Invited to Kenya.” ADN, 8 October 1963.
111 “Sithole Invited to Kenya.” ADN, 6 November 1963.
112 “Stand Firm Call.” ADN, 13 November 1963.
113 “The ZANU Women Reply.” Letter to the editor, ADN, 14 November 1963.
114 Day, International Nationalism, 118; “Nkomo Wins A ‘Yes’ on Kenya.” ADN, 26 November 1963.
115 “Sithole Uses Court.” Zimbabwe Review, Vol. 1, No. 7.
116 McIntosh to the Librarian, Makerere University College, 14 December 1963, NAZ, F165/1/2, NAZ.
117 AmConsul Salisbury to Department of State, 23 December 1963, Record Group (hereafter ‘RG’) 59, Box 4025, Pol 13–9, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter ‘NARA’), College Park, Maryland.
118 Dar-es-Salaam to Department of State, 20 December 1963, RG 59, Box 4023, Pol Rhod and Nyas, NARA.
119 On Nkumbula see: Macola, Liberal Nationalism.
120 “Reconciliation Talks between Nkomo and Sithole flop in Nairobi.” African Parade, February 1964.
121 “New Banda Tirade on Sir Roy.” TRH, 6 July 1964.
122 “Field at Ceremonies.” TRH, 6 July 1964.
123 “Banda Now Willing to See Smith.” TRH, 8 July 1964.
124 “Notes by the Way.” East Africa & Rhodesia, 9 July 1964.
125 “Liberian Comment on Declaration.” TRH, 4 July 1964.
126 “20 ZANU Team for Malawi.” ADN, 4 July 1964.
127 Ibid.
128 “Malawi Deportee Warns Against Banda.” ADN, 15 July 1964.
129 Reed, “International Politics,” 33; Mazarire, “ZANU’s External Networks,” 84.
130 Ministry of Information, Rhodesia in the Context of Africa.
131 Ibid., 5.
132 For a comprehensive account of these tensions, see: Doran, Kingdom, Power, Glory.