An Industrious Revolution in Norway?

Abstract

Jan de Vries’ theory of an industrious revolution has received much attention from historians working on economic and social development. Its aim is to unify the contrasting descriptions of the rise of the Industrial Revolution, but the question is how it fits the empirical development. This article tests if the industrious revolution is a fruitful concept to use to describe and explain pre-industrial development in Norway. It concludes that Norwegian pre-industrial economic development resembles an industrious revolution only superficially. On closer examination, it is clear that the consumer aspirations that are central in the industrious revolution theory were not the main driving force behind the economic development that took place in pre-industrial Norway. One must instead see the changes in a wider, transnational perspective.

Keywords:

• industrious revolution
• economic development
• Norway

Notes

1 De Vries, ‘The Industrial Revolution’, 249, 255–7; De Vries, ‘Between Purchasing Power’; De Vries and Van Der Woude, The First Modern Economy; and De Vries, The Industrious Revolution.

2 De Vries, The Industrious Revolution, 82.

3 Meerkerk, ‘Couples Cooperating’, 237–66; Allen and Weisdorf, ‘Was There an “Industrious Revolution”’, 715–29; and Voth, ‘Time and Work in Eighteenth-Century London’, 29–58.

4 Clark and Werf, ‘Work in Progress’, 830–43; and Ogilvie, ‘Consumption’.

5 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 219–24.

6 Maddison, The World Economy, 636–41.

7 Dyrvik et al., Norsk økonomisk historie, 124–8; and Population censuses 1769, 1801, 1815, 1855.

8 Livi-Bacci, A Concise History, 66.

9 Drake, Population and Society, 41–3; Dyrvik, Den demografiske overgangen, 67–71; Sogner, ‘Familie, husstand og befolkningsutvikling’, 169–75; and Dyrvik et al., Norsk økonomisk historie, 124–8.

10 Livi-Bacci, A Concise History, 109.

11 Grytten, ‘Gross Domestic Product’; Grytten, ‘A Consumer Price Index’; Grytten, ‘Norwegian Real Wages’; and Fløystad, Arbeidsmandens Lod, 122–9.

12 Danish prices cannot be assumed to be precisely the same as those in Norway, but since Denmark-Norway formed one customs’ union they were likely to be more akin than prices in other countries. Freight rates to Denmark were also lower than those for trade to warring countries in the late 18th century, strengthening the argument for using Danish prices instead of those of, for example, London. Distance and transportation costs of course impacted on prices, but taking into account Norway’s geography, transport within Norway would often have been more difficult and costly than transport to or from Denmark. It should be emphasized that the price studies only show general trends over time and, even if based on Norwegian prices, would not reflect the nominal price that a household received or paid for a given commodity. The main source for Danish prices is Andersen and Pedersen, A History of Prices.

13 Herstad, I helstatens grep.

14 Grytten, ‘A Consumer Price Index’.

15 Dyrvik et al., Norsk økonomisk historie.

16 Ibid., 144.

17 Hovland, ‘Jordbruksproduksjon’; Dyrvik, ‘Poteta’; Teigen, ‘Potet’; Lunden, ‘Potetkommentar’; Lunden, ‘Potetdyrkinga’; Hovland, ‘Åkerbruket i Norge’; Lunden, Norges landbrukshistorie, 159–80; and Nedkvitne, Mens bøndene seilte.

18 Lunden, Norges landbrukshistorie, 264–79.

19 Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth.

20 Herstad, I helstatens grep, 238.

21 Smith, ‘Fortsættelse’, 135–7; Wilse, Physisk, oekonomisk og statistisk beskrivelse, 322–5; Døssland, ‘Sunnmørsk jordbruksøkonomi’; Døssland, ‘Melchior Falch’ (in north Norway a perfectly sufficient amount of grain was generally reckoned to be 1.5 barrels per adult; Fjærvoll, Korndyrking, 93f).

22 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 36.

23 Bull and Dybdal, Fra pest til poteter, 325.

24 Smith, ‘Fortsættlese’, 137; Wilse, Physisk, oekonomisk og statistisk beskrivelse, 322–5; and Holm, ‘Forsög’.

25 Løberg, En tidligkapitalistisk skogbruksrevolusjon.

26 Also observed by, for example, Bull, De trondhjemske handelshusene, 79–81.

27 Before the war, Norwegian deals and battens had approximately 70% of the British market, while Norwegian fir timber had c. 15%.

28 Dyrvik et al., Norsk økonomisk historie, 218.

29 Ibid., 117.

30 The fur, leather and hide trade frequently appears in the export records and likely played an important role as an additional income for many households. However, it has not been studied so far and thus little is known of it.

31 Smith, ‘Fortsættlese’, 137; and Wilse, Physisk, oekonomisk og statistisk beskrivelse, 322–5.

32 ‘I øvrig have Fiskeriene gjort den største Forandring i Jordbruget hos os, og foraarsaget at de Gaarde, som tilforn havde kun een Opsider, ere nu deelt imellem 3 eller 4; thi da Søebruget i de senere Tider meget stærkt har tiltaget, har man ei kundet befatte sig med vidløftig Jordebrug eller Land-Brug, men ved hielp og aarlig Fordeel af Fiskerierne kunde ernære sig af smaa Jord-Parter; hvortil kommer den mangel paa Tieneste. Folk, som nøder en Bonde til, jo før jo heller at dele Jorden med sin Søn, for at faae en Lettelse i sit ellers uovervindelige Jord-Arbeid. Paa saadan Maade er og bliver enhver Jord-Part desto mer Forbedret, og saa vel Folkets Antall i Almidelighet, som de for Jordbrugendes i særdeleshed, stærkt forøget’; Strøm, Sunnmøre, 505.

33 See, for example, Pram, Reiser i Norge; and Strøm, Sunnmøre.

34 This was approximately 0.003% of the population, which in 1769 was 727,000.

35 Riksarkivet (RA). Kommerciekollegiet, Norske saker, Industrisaker pakke, General tabell over Fabrikerne i Norge 1776; Beretninger, Table 14: over de vigtigste Industrie-Anlæg, som foruden Bergverkerne haves i Norge ved Udgangen af Aaret 1835.

36 Tranberg, ‘Tekstilproduksjon’, 137.

37 Grieg, Norsk Tekstil; Hutchison, Enigheten; Bull, ‘Industriousness and Development’, 425–46; and Hutchison, In the Doorway, 52–9.

38 Smith, ‘Fortsættlese’, 30.

39 Hutchison, In the Doorway, chapters 5 and 6; Fløystad, Arbeidsmandens Lod; Løberg, En tidligkapitalistisk skogbruksrevolusjon; Bøhmer, Bondestanden; Elstad, ‘Skiftemateriale’; and Hutchinson, Skifteprotokoller.

40 Smith, ‘Fortsættlese’; Wilse, Physisk, oekonomisk og statistisk beskrivelse, 322–5; Døssland, ‘Sunnmørsk jordbruksøkonomi’; and Døssland, ‘Melchior Falch’.

41 Hutchinson, Skifteprotokoller; Hutchison, Enigheten; Tveite, ‘The Norwegian Textile Market’; and Bøhmer, Bondestanden.

42 See Note 40.

43 Hartviksen, Fiskerbøndenes arv, 468–71.

44 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 241–3.

45 Helle et al., Vestlandets historie, 192.

46 Løberg, En tidligkapitalistisk skogbruksrevolusjon; and Frydenlund, Stormannen Peder Anker, 111–26.

47 Bødtker, Norsk fløtingshistorie, 165.

48 Døssland, ‘Økonomi og marknad i Møre og Romsdal på 1700-talet’, 125–7; and Brautaset, Norsk eksport av fisk, 124.

49 Jarmann, ‘Kjøreveien’; Johannessen, Alltid under veis, 106; Rogan, Plikt; and Hutchison, Fra mangfold til enhet, 20–9.

50 Schweigaard, Norges statistikk, 77–9.

51 Urban areas are here defined as settlements of more than 350 persons in accordance with Helle et al., Norsk byhistorie.

52 Helle et al., Norsk byhistorie, 131.

53 Ibid., 147.

54 Hutchison, In the Doorway, chapters 5 and 6.

55 Ibid.; and Brautaset, Norsk eksport, 124.

56 O’Brien, ‘European Economic Development’.

57 Dyrvik et al., Norsk økonomisk historie, 248.

58 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 220–4.

59 Brautaset, Norsk eksport.

60 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 122–3; and Hartviksen, Fiskerbøndenes arv.

61 Soltow, ‘The Distribution of Real Estate’; Kongsrud, ‘Hva er en husmann’; and Hutchison, ‘De små hjulene’.

62 Hutchison, In the Doorway, 220–4.

63 Tranberg, ‘Tekstilproduksjon’, 31–50.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ragnhild Hutchison

Ragnhild Hutchison (b.1976) has a PhD in history from the European University Institute in Florence, Italy, and has worked as a historian of the early modern period at several research institutions. Her research interests are largely changes in production and consumption in the early modern period, as they relate to transnational connections of the pre-industrial Norwegian economic development. Among her publications are Fra mangfold til enhet. Justervesenet og historien om mål og vekt i Norge (2006) and In the Doorway to Development. An Enquiry into Market Oriented structural Changes in Norway ca. 1750–1830 (Leiden, 2012).