The Free Negro Company of Christiansted: Struggles for equality, 1773–1799

Abstract

This article examines the so-called Free Negro Company in the town of Christiansted on the island of St. Croix in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies in the latter part of the 18th century. It examines the range of practices and social strategies developed by these men to obtain recognition as free subjects and position themselves in the social space of a racially divided Caribbean society.

The article shows that well before the more well-known instances of coordinated collective action in the beginning of the 19th century, the men of the Free Negro Company developed and applied a variety of social strategies. They challenged the social order that defined their place in society; challenges that took place in physical encounters with Euro-Caribbeans both in the streets and in courtrooms. These free Afro-Caribbean men continuously attempted to expand their space of action, and to emphasize to Euro-Caribbeans that they were free citizens and should be treated as equals. They challenged the distinctions created by the Euro-Caribbeans whilst at the same time setting themselves apart from the enslaved population.

The article focuses on the period prior to the first British occupation of the Danish-Norwegian West Indies in 1801, in order to look for signs of opposition to the social order and attempts to achieve a better position in society. The article investigates the militia-like Free Negro Company from the first instance of its members tentatively challenging the racialized social order in 1773 until 1799, when the last mention of a similar case is found in the archival material examined. The Free Negro Company held a central position in the society, and an examination hereof provides the opportunity to get closer to the free Afro-Caribbeans, as individuals and as a group. The role and function of the Company in Danish-Norwegian West Indian society meant that its members came into regular contact with both Euro-Caribbeans and enslaved labourers, and that they often found themselves in situations marked by conflict.

Keywords:

• Danish-Norwegian West Indies
• freedmen
• militia

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1 Quotations from archival material and Danish accounts have been translated from Old Danish into English by the author, unless otherwise stated.

2 Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 197; DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:372, West Indian journal files 1780–1816, 1815, cases nos. 226–350. Appendix in case no. 298.

3 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:372. Appendix in case no. 298. Original in English.

4 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:372. Appendix in case no. 298.

5 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:372. Appendix in case no. 298. Original in English.

6 Olsen, ‘I alle Maader,’ 197–8.

7 Hall, Slave Society, 169.

8 Ibid.

9 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420, Copy of comments and placards concerning slaves, including a draft bill for Slave Act, 1672–1787. 20 January 1774, no. 51. This public notice only concerns the free Afro-Caribbeans on St. Croix. On 4 January 1774, an almost identical public notice had been given on St. Thomas, in which the cockade had already been declared mandatory in 1768. DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420. 4 January 1774, no. 50; DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420. 21 May 1768, no. 32.

10 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420, 20 January 1774, no. 51; Hall, Slave Society, 146.

11 DNA, CCC/IO, 371:428, Miscellaneous documents concerning the emancipation of the slaves and the older case concerning the free coloureds, 1826–1838. 1 April 1816.

12 Hall, Slave Society, 169–72.

13 Hall, Slave Society, 167–8.

14 Knight, ‘The Disintegration’, 324–8; Gøbel, ‘Danmarks slavehandelsforbud’, 44–9.

15 Knight, ‘The Disintegration’, 331; Williams, From Colombus, 247–54.

16 Hall, Slave Society, 157–77; Rezende, ‘Cultural Identity’.

17 E.g. Handler, The Unappropriated; Campbell, The Dynamics of Change; Heuman, Between Black and White; Cox, Free Coloreds; Hall, Slave Society.

18 King, Blue Coat; Landers, Atlantic Creoles.

19 The commission’s report, given on 5 April 1817, in: Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 197–8. In the wake of the petition of 1816, a commission was established to deal with it. The report, for instance, treats the ‘current military status’ of the free Afro-Caribbeans.

20 Ibid., 196–7.

21 The commission’s report, in: Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 223. ‘til at antage saamange Frienegere paa en ubestemt Tid til at giøre militair Tieneste, som findes nødvendigt.’

22 The commission’s report, in: Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 223.

23 DNA, GG, 677:2.17.5, Journalised and unjournalised letters received from authorities etc. in the Danish West Indies 1760–1854, 1784–1787. 20 December 1784. ‘Den 11 Novb 1748, af da værende Compagniets Gouverneur Hansen andfortroet øverste Befaling over det her værende Frie Neeger Compagnie.’ According to Tongelo, he arrived on St. Croix along with Governor Frederik Moth on 27 April 1733. This does not correspond with other information about Moth’s arrival on the island. See: Gøbel, ‘Første danske rejse’, 110; Bro-Jørgensen, Dansk Vestindien, 244.

24 Haagensen, Description, 31. Haagensen is probably referring to Mingo Tamarin, who in 1721 was appointed Free Negro Captain on St. Thomas by Governor Erich Bredal. See: Larsen, Virgin Islands, 57–8.

25 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:419, Draft bills and recommendations concerning the Negro Act, including appendixes, 1783–1789. 21 May 1768, no. 32. ‘forekomme ald Støy og Allarm paa gaden om Natten som foraarsages af Negere.’

26 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:419. 21 May 1768, no. 32.

27 Oldendorp, Geschichte, 267. ‘Ueberdis ist in St. Croix and St. Thomas eine Compagnie Freyneger, die einen Capitain aus ihrem Mittel haben, im Nothfall als Stadtsoldaten dienen, und bey einem Aufruhr der Sclaven sehr brauchbar sind. Davon ist alle Sonntage eine Patrouille in der Stadt, um jeder Unordnung zuvorzukommen.’ Original in German; author’s emphasis.

28 DNA, SC, 684:38.9.2, Police Court proceedings 1756–1814, 1764–1774. 27 October 1770. ‘Frie Neger Patrollen.’

29 Hall, Slave Society, 154; Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 197–8.

30 Vibæk, Dansk Vestindien, 21. ‘regeringens tillidsmand over for de frifarvede.’

31 Hall, Slave Society, 154.

32 The commission’s report, in: Olsen, ‘I alle Maader’, 222–3. ‘naar de behøves til Vagt eller andre militaire Expeditioner.’

33 Rezende, ‘Cultural Identity’, 217.

34 DNA, GG, 677:2.16.1, Registers of letters received from authorities etc. in the Danish West Indies, journals, 1790–1795. 14 October, no. 86. ‘Frineger Mandskabet.’

35 Rezende, ‘Cultural Identity’, 226.

36 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:473, West Indian journal files: West India militia, highway authority, fire brigade etc., 1803–1848.

37 Bourdieu, Af praktiske grunde, 20–1; Bourdieu, Distinction, 158.

38 DNA, CCC/IO, 371:428, 19 July 1816.

39 DNA, CCC/IO, 371:428, 19 July 1816. ‘Ingen farved Indvaaner tilstaaes den Gunst at erholde Laan af Hans Majestæt, lad ham besidde saa stor Formue han end vil. Kun en Undtagelse er skeet heri paa Hans Majestæts Øer, nemlig med Samuel De Windt.’ The author is very thankful for Poul Erik Olsen letting her use his transcription of this document.

40 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:418, Public documents, chronologically filed, concerning the Danish West Indies with special focus on the Negro Constitution, 1733–1788. 27 November 1747.

41 Rezende, ‘Cultural Identity’, 229.

42 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:86.26–27, Tax records for St. Croix 1758–1915, 1791–1792.

43 Hall, Slave Society, 144.

44 Rezende, ‘Cultural Identity’, 227; DNA, AA/WIA, 571:86.1–25, Tax Records for St. Croix 1756–1814, 1785–1789; DNA, SC, 685:38.9.8, Police Court proceedings 1756–1814, 1785–1789. 22 February 1788.

45 DNA, CCC/IO, 371:428. 19 July 1816. ‘Naar vi her tale om at gjøre militair Tjeneste, maa vi derved forstaae en Tjeneste, for hvis Opfyldelse vi aldeles intet Regulativ have, og hvis Overtrædelse vi følgelig kiende ligesaalidet til. Det har ofte været Tilfældet, at naar vi erholdt Befaling til at patrolere, vi da ikke have vidst hvorledes vi skulde handle for ikke at anklages for pligtstridigt Forhold. De andre borgerlige Militaire, som have et Reglement, kunne ikke være underkastede at begaae Fejl i Udøvelsen af deres Pligter. Det ere vi imidlertid, da vi intet have at rette os efter uden skrivtlige Ordre ved Udøvelsen af visse Tjeneste-Anliggender, og mange Gange dømmes vi til Straf og Bøder, uden at vide hvad vi have forbrudt.’

46 DNA, SC, 685:38.9.6, Police Court proceedings 1756–1814, 1781–1785. 24 September 1785.

47 Ibid.

48 Ibid. ‘Sorte Rakkere.’

49 Ibid. ‘stod stille ved Colliers hiørne uden at giøre mindste Mine at skulle attaquere eller paagribe ham.’

50 Ibid. ‘Hvorpaa Deponenten i Vrede sagde til dem: Hvem er I at I saaledes paagriber mig? hvortil de svarede at de vare Kongens Patroul, da Deponenten først observerede at nogle af dem havde Hertsfænger paa; og sagde Deponenten da: om I end er Patroul bør I ikke paagribe mig som en Tyv og Skælm, Jeg vil godvillig følge Jer.’

51 Ibid.

52 Simonsen, En fortræffelig Constitution, 53.

53 DNA, SC, 685:38.9.10, Police Court proceedings 1756–1814, 1789–1800. 28 April 1797. ‘hvorpaa han forlangte at see deres Pas eller Ordre og hvortil Anthoni ham svarede at han ey vilde vise ham eller nogen anden saadan.’

54 Ibid. ‘ligesaa God som Deponenten.’

55 Ibid.

56 Simonsen, En fortræffelig Constitution, 50.

57 Ibid., 47.

58 Ibid., 46, 49.

59 Hall, Slave Society, 56–62.

60 Ibid., 62, 146–9; Olsen, ‘Danske Lov’, 315.

61 DNA, WIG, 678:3.81.262, Subject files 5: Military matters: Orders and instructions for the military units, 1744–1806. 18 January 1786. ‘enten i Arrest paa Vand og brød udi Fortet eller Degradation.’

62 E.g. DNA, GG 677:2.16.1. 4 August 1790, no. 39.

63 DNA, GG, 677:2.17.5. 11 August 1785; DNA, GG 677:2.16.1. 14 October 1790, no. 86.

64 DNA, WIG, 678:3.81.262. 18 January 1786. ‘da forbydes saadant hermed paa det alvorligste, da fra nu af udi Militairer Forseelser ingen Penge Straffer mere maae finde Stæd.’

65 DNA, CCC/IO, 371:428. 19 July 1816.

66 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:205–206, West Indian journal 1773–1816, 1799–1800. 1 June 1799.

67 Ibid.

68 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420. 26 May 1786, no. 63.

69 DNA, WIG, 678:3.81.73, Subject files 2: Local authorities: Correspondence concerning police matters and administration of justice, 1782–1790. 19 June 1786.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 Ibid.

73 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420. 26 May 1786, no. 63.

74 Simonsen, En fortræffelig Constitution, 52–3.

75 DNA, GG 677:2.16.1. 26 November 1790, no. 130.

76 DNA, SC, 685:38.9.6. 8 December 1773.

77 DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:420. In a proposal for a so-called Negro Act drawn up by a commission in 1783, it is stated that free Afro-Caribbeans are allowed to carry weapons when on duty. The proposal was never adopted, but it nevertheless seems fair to presume that it more or less reflected practice as it was in the beginning of the 1780s.

78 DNA, SC, 685:38.9.6. 7 December 1773.

79 Ibid. ‘enten hand var frie eller ey langt mindre om hand var Fændrik ved Frie Negerne, og havde hand aldrig seet disse Negere i Deres Mondour.’

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Signe Haubroe Flygare

Signe Haubroe Flygare (b. 1982) is currently working on a project concerning the 100th anniversary of Denmark’s sale of the Danish West Indian Islands. She is a former archivist at the Danish State Archives (Rigsarkivet), where she worked primarily on preparing the online publication in 2017 of 5 million records from the former Danish West Indies. She holds an MA in History from the Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen (2012). During her studies, she completed a joint internship programme with the National Park Service on St. John (US Virgin Islands) and the Saxo Institute.