Moderators of and Mechanisms Underlying Stereotype Threat Effects on Older Adults' Memory Performance

Abstract

Recent research has suggested that negative stereotypes about aging may have a detrimental influence on older adults' memory performance. This study sought to determine whether stereotype-based influences were moderated by age, education, and concerns about being stigmatized. Possible mechanisms underlying these influences on memory performance were also explored. The memory performance of adults aged 60 to 70 years and 71 to 82 years was examined under conditions designed to induce or eliminate stereotype threat. Threat was found to have a greater impact on performance in the young-old than in the old-old group, whereas the opposite was observed for the effects of stigma consciousness. In both cases, the effects were strongest for those with higher levels of education. Further analyses found little evidence in support of the mediating roles of affective responses or working memory. The only evidence of mediation was found with respect to recall predictions, suggesting a motivational basis of threat effects on performance. These findings highlight the specificity of stereotype threat effects in later adulthood as well as possible mechanisms underlying such effects.

Support for this research was provided by grant AG0210153 from the National Institute of Aging.

Notes

¹In spite of these data, it is possible that informing participants about these norms may have negatively affected performance by increasing performance anxiety. This should be reflected in a recall predictions being negatively associated with our measure of negative affect. Although this correlation was negative, it was not significant (r =− .11, p > .26), suggesting that this was not a strong concern.

Note. SF-36 scores represent norm-based T-scores. Vocabulary scores could range from 0 to 36. Speed scores are means of sample-based standardized scores for the letter and pattern comparison tasks. Stigma consciousness scores could range from 0 to 60, with lower scores reflecting greater stigma consciousness.

²It is important to note that the ranges of education across the four Age × Threat Condition groups were comparable, with a lower bound of 12 years in each of the four groups and a higher bound ranging form 19 to 21. When those individuals with education levels greater than 19 years (n = 4) were excluded from the analyses to equate the ranges of education within groups, the three-way interaction was unaffected.

³The previously described outlier in the threat group was excluded from these analyses to control for any undue influence.

⁴The time between the threat manipulation and memory test was relatively long in the present study, leading to the possibility that the null threat effects in the old-old group may have reflected differential dissipation (e.g., forgetting) of the experimental manipulation across ages. Although this can not be ruled out, it should be noted that Hess and Hinson (2006) observed a similar age trend using a much shorter interval between threat and the memory test, thereby supporting the reliability of this age trend.