What makes South Africa competitive from a tourist’s point of view?

ABSTRACT

Tourism and destination competitiveness is a popular research topic and has become more important in recent years. This is evident from the amount of research conducted on the topic. However, competitiveness is mainly researched from a supply perspective, which solely captures the opinions of tourism experts and consequently creates the need to obtain the opinions of tourists as well.

This paper provides an enhanced understanding of the opinions foreign tourists visiting South Africa have of the competitiveness of the country as tourist destination. Data was obtained by distributing questionnaires to tourists at OR Tambo International Airport who were returning home after visiting South Africa. A total of 619 usable questionnaires were obtained. The findings revealed that

(1) The factors identified in this study differ from similar supply-side studies on South Africa;

(2) Respondents considered unique tourism aspects the most important element of competitiveness;

(3) The second most important competitiveness factor, tourism services, consists of internal factors only;

(4) Safety and security is an essential competitiveness aspect regardless of the destination or research approach used.

KEYWORDS:

• Tourism
• destination competitiveness
• competitiveness factors
• demand

1. Introduction

The tourism sector is recognised as one of the important sectors of development (Hamarneh, 2015:81), which is evident when considering the growth in tourist numbers to different tourist destinations. One such example is South Africa, which in the past five years has experienced an increase in the number of international visitors, with 16,44 million tourists visiting the country in 2018 (Stats SA, 2018). Between May 2018 and May 2019 tourist arrivals had increased by 1,5%. (Head, 2019). This growth implies an upsurge in competition between destinations confronted with this intensified rivalry on a global scale (Eraqi, 2009:15). Tourism is referred to as an extremely competitive business (de Holan & Phillips, 1997:778; Du Plessis, Saayman & van der Merwe, 2015:6). As part of this global tourism market, South Africa keenly experiences the positive and negative economic impacts of the tourism industry. Tourism is essential to the South African economy due to its 2,9% contribution to the South African gross domestic product (Stats SA, 2018).

Hence, researchers engaged with research to alleviate on the fact that Tourism is currently one of the main contributors to the South African economy (South Africa, 2017:9). Researchers (Du Plessis, 2002; Heath, 2002 & 2003; Jonker, Heath & du Toit 2004; Maharaj & Balkaran, 2014; Du Plessis, Saayman & van der Merwe, 2017) identified various factors that make South Africa a favoured tourist destination, including its wildlife, cultural experience, climate, scenery, and hospitality. All of these add to South Africa’s competitiveness. Although numerous studies on destination competitiveness have been conducted worldwide, there is a scarcity of literature that focuses on Africa (Du Plessis et al., 2015:6). It is also evident that the majority of researchers in the field (Heath, 2002; Ritchie & Crouch, 2003; Saayman & du Plessis, 2003; Hong, 2009; Hamarneh, 2015) generally investigate the supply side (expert opinions) of destination competitiveness as opposed to the demand side (tourist opinions). This could be a reason for the sparse literature on the topic, as tourists’ motivation for travelling or their satisfaction with destination services is not considered (Garau-Taberner, 2007:64).

To focus on the tourists’ perceptions, play a vital role in tourism planning, participation and marketing activities of destinations. Tourist satisfaction is one of the key tools for increasing tourism destination competitiveness (Pavlic, Peruric & Portolan, 2011:592), which motivates the necessity for researching tourism destination competitiveness from a demand side. One could address this problem by reviewing and investigating different opinions on the factors or aspects of competitiveness to gain an enhanced understanding of competitiveness as it relates to both sides.

Decision-making of tourists and the demand behaviour for consumption is a complicated mind-set, driven by different factors in addition to factors that are indicated as important by supply side role-players, which make a comprehensive study towards the demand side important.

Filling that gap in literature could enable tourism businesses to provide desirable products and services to tourists/visitors. Of value would be transparency as to the aspects that make a destination more competitive from a tourist’s point of view, which is essential for destinations to generate income or increase their current revenue.

2. Background to the study

Tourists decide to visit specific tourist destinations for various reasons (Buhalis, 2000:103). These are often based on their judgement of a destination’s resources and attractions, indicating that products or services determine the extent to which tourists are attracted to a certain destination (Gomezelj & Mihalič, 2008:294). Destinations that provide unique products, services, and benefits can draw tourists, persuading them to choose these destinations above others (Crouch, 2011:27), ultimately resulting in more tourist arrivals. The question of whether these destinations would be successful or not is largely dependent on its ability to sustain a competitive advantage over other tourist destinations (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003:29). This advantage can be extended over time, enabling the destination to demonstrate better performance than its competitors (Croes & Rivera, 2010:219). Tourism on a global scale is becoming more competitive, which influences destinations to differentiate themselves from their competition and so improve their competitiveness (Krešić & Prebežac, 2011 cited by Miličević, Mihalič & Sever, 2017:209).

Competitiveness is a comprehensive term, that is used in different industries and fields, including, which is derived from the Latin word ‘competer’, meaning the competition could apply to the competition between businesses (Plumins, Sceulovs & Gaile –Sarkane, 2016:380).

Porter (1980), the first researcher to investigate competitiveness on a firm level, stated that irrespective of the industry, the competitiveness intensifies as soon as competition arrives. Porter & van der Linde (1995:97) proclaimed that ‘competitiveness at industry level arises from superior productivity, either in terms of lower costs than rivals or the ability to offer products with superior values that justifies premium price.’ From a tourism perspective Ritchie & Crouch (2003:2), defined competitiveness as the ability of a tourism destination to ‘increase tourism expenditure, to increasingly attract visitors while providing them with satisfying, memorable experiences, and to do so in a profitable way, while enhancing the well-being of destination residents and preserving the natural capital of the destination for future generations’. However, this definition differs slightly from the research conducted specifically on destination competitiveness (Heath, 2002; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Crouch, 2011; Dwyer & Forsyth, 2011). Various authors have strived to define the term destinations to improve the competitiveness of tourism destinations (Andergassen, Candela & Figini, 2013:86; Đurašević, 2015:82). Authors Dwyer & Kim (2003:369) assert that, to achieve a competitive advantage over other destinations, the ‘overall appeal, and the tourist experience offered’ must be better than competing destinations. When a destination can manage to persuade tourists to choose their destination, there will be growth in tourist arrivals for this destination. Therefore, destination competitiveness is referred to as a critical element in the success of tourism destinations (Goffi, 2013:121)

The tourism sector has become particularly important since 1994, due to national economic development and ‘re-integration into the global tourism economy’ (Rogerson & Rogerson, 2014:190). The problem, however, is that tourism practitioners are provided with guidelines for improving overall competitiveness, but not specific to the content and context of a particular destination, e.g. for developed versus developing countries, from a demand or supply point of view, or destination-specific competitiveness factors.

Therefore, tourism role players should be mindful of the contributing factors to the competitiveness of destinations in joining management practices and the sources of competitive advantages to acquire a competitive advantage and attract more tourists (Hong, 2009:108). Brotherton & Shaw (1996:144) stated, a factor that is significant, is of supreme importance and has high priority. This factor not solely refers to the business’ objectives, but to the anticipated outcomes of a company’s/ destination’s goal. Consequently, a competitive factor affects the destination’s overall position. Porter (1990:76) investigated firm-level competitiveness from a supply perspective, and purported that businesses need to be aware of these factors and supporting factors that make a business competitive.

From a tourism perspective, there are certain internal and external factors contributing to the competitiveness of a destination (du Plessis et al., 2015:2). External factors or attributes include inflation, ageing population, terrorism and political instability (Blanke & Chiesa, 2013:4; Haarhoff, 2018:3). Internal factors include, amongst others, cultural resources, air transport infrastructure, tourism infrastructure, and safety and security (Blanke & Chiesa, 2013:4; Haarhoff, 2018:3). In other words, the destination has no direct control over external factors, but a destination upholds the power to influence or change internal factors. Different researchers hold diverse opinions about the factors or aspects that determine the competitiveness of a destination.

Hong (2008:40;66) divided the different elements of competitiveness into categories: comparative advantages, competitive advantages, tourism management, and environmental conditions. The comparative advantage category refers to inherited resources such as ‘climate, scenery, flora and fauna’ (Dwyer & Kim, 2003:372). Various researchers (Hu & Ritchie, 1993:29; Crouch & Ritchie, 1999:142-3; Hassan, 2000:240; Ritchie & Crouch, 2000:3; Heath, 2002:338; Bahar & Kozak, 2007:67; Armenski et al., 2012:491-2; and Panisri, 2013:232) have researched comparative advantage and included aspects such as climate, scenery, landscape, minerals, history, music, paintings and special events. South Africa’s climate (weather) plays an essential role in drawing tourists to the destination due to the variety of outdoor and nature-based activities on offer (Giddy, Fitchett & Hoogendoorn, 2017:58). Tourists make travelling decisions based on the climate of a destination. Various studies have focused on the impact of climate change (Hoogendoorn & Fitchett, 2018; Pandy & Rogerson, 2018; Dube & Nhamo, 2019). The research conducted in this study, however, indicates the country’s climate as a competitive factor that highlighted climate in a positive light. On the other hand, the competitive advantage category can also consist of aspects such as accommodation, entertainment, recreation facilities, transport systems, creative activities, and economic growth, identified by authors such as Poon (1993:293), Crouch & Ritchie (1999:148); Hassan (2000:240); Dwyer & Kim (2003:373); Saayman & Du Plessis, (2003:60); Gooroochurn & Sugiyarto (2005:29); Bahar & Kozak (2007:67); Hong (2009:33-43), and; Kozak et al. (2009:65). The next category, tourism management, consists of tourism products or service development, management organisation, tourist information and tourism resources information (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999:147; Buhalis, 2000:98; Mihalič, 2000:71; Dwyer & Kim, 2003:402; Armenski et al., 2012:494). Table 1 provides a summary of the literature focussing on factors that researchers indicated as part of destination competitiveness. It was clear from the literature review that researchers used the terms; factors; elements and aspects interchangeable describing the same issue.

Table 1. Factors contributing to competitiveness by different authors

Author	Aspects	Category/factor	Approach
Ritchie, J.R.B.&Crouch, G.I., 2000	Core resources and attractions	Physiography and climate, culture and history, market ties, mix of activities, special events, entertainment, superstructure	Supply
	Supporting factors and resources	Infrastructure, accessibility, facilitating resources, hospitality, enterprise
	Destination management	Resource stewardship, marketing, finance and venture capital, organization, human resource development, information/research, quality of service, visitor management
	Amplifying and qualifying determinants	Location, interdependencies, safety, awareness/image/brand, cost/value
	Destination policy, planning, and development	System definition, philosophy, vision, audit, positioning, development, competitive/collaborative analysis, monitoring, evaluation
Heath, 2002	Inherited attractors	Natural attractors, cultural attractors, heritage attractors	Supply
	Created attractors	Events, range of available activities, entertainment, shopping
Dwyer, L. & Kim, C., 2003	Endowed resources	Cultural/heritage resources, created resources, tourism infrastructure, special events, activities, entertainment, shopping	Supply
	Supporting factors and resources	General infrastructure, quality of service, accessibility of destination, hospitality, market ties
	Destination management	DMO, destination marketing management, destination policy, planning and development, human resource development, environmental management
	Situational conditions	Location, safety/security, price competitiveness, competitive environment, global environment
	Demand conditions	Tourist preferences, awareness of destination, destination image
Enright, M.J. & Newton, J., 2004	Tourism-specific factors	Physiography, culture and history, activities, special events, cuisine, safety	Supply
	Business and industry-related factors	Inputs, industrial and consumer demand, inter-firm competition and cooperation, industrial and regional clustering, internal
	Organization and strategy of firms	Institutions, social structures and agendas, market ties, tourism business superstructure, additional drivers
Gooroochurn & Sugiyarto 2005	Price indicator	Hotel price, purchasing power parity	Supply
	Infrastructure indicator	Road index, sanitation facilities, improved drinking water
	Environment indicator	Population density, CO2 emissions
	Technology indicator	Internet hosts, telephone lines, mobile phones, high-tech exports
	Human resources indicators	Education index
	Openness indicator	Visa, tourism openness, trade openness, taxes on trade
	Social indicator	Human development index, newspapers, personal computers, TV sets
Bahar & Kozak, 2007	Cultural & natural attractiveness	Attractiveness of historical attractions, attractiveness of cultural attractions, attractiveness of natural environment, level of hospitality / friendliness, overall attractiveness, diversity of tourism products, quality of sea and beaches	Mixed approach (supply and demand)
	Quality of tourist services	Standard of hygiene and sanitation, quality of tourist services, quality of local food and beverage, overall value for money, standard of facilities and activities for children, standard of accommodation facilities
	Availability of tourist facilities & activities	Availability of nightlife and entertainment, availability of sport activities and facilities, availability of shopping facilities, standard of health services, effectiveness of the promotion and publicity, quality of local transport network and services, quality of infrastructure, quality of banking services, quality of the destination airport, quality of telecommunication network, distance to my home country
Mathew, V., 2009	Support activities	Human resources development, administrative support, infrastructure, physical support, policies, capacity, personal safety and security, culture, climate, events, linkage, channels, network, community involvement, benchmarking, environmental development	Supply
	Key success drivers	business plan, competencies, cooperation, entrepreneurs, investments, leadership, objectives, people, policy, portfolio, resources, strategies
	Sustainable process	Image building, competency, design, development, product, development, quality management, sales, service delivery
	Leverage/operation	Brand management, core competencies, customer relationship, marketing, expansion, opportunity identification, positioning, strengths and weaknesses
	Destination marketing	Promotion, attraction, sales, events, target marketing, strategic positioning, innovation
	Sustainable services	Service experiences, hospitality, accommodation, entertainment, society focus
Hong, 2009		Infrastructure investments, strategic planning to market ties, maintaining resources, monitoring resource allocation, growth and development, operational performance effectiveness, facilitating resources created	Supply
Armenski, et al.,2012	Inherited Resources	Historical sites, heritage, traditional arts, flora and fauna, artistic and architectural features, unspoiled nature, national parks, attractiveness of climate for tourism, cleanliness	Supply
	Created resources	Nightlife, variety of cuisine, special events/festivals, food service facilities, health resorts and spa, winter activities, diversity of shopping experience, rural tourism, entertainment, nature-based activities, congress tourism, community support for special event, sport facilities, local tourism transportation efficiency/quality, casino, adventure activities, accommodation, recreation facilities, tourism guidance and information, existence of tourism programmes for visitors, airport efficiency/quality, amusement/theme parks, accessibility to natural areas, water-based activities
	Supporting factors	Hospitality of residents towards tourists, financial institutions and currency exchange facilities, telecommunication system for tourists, communication and trust between tourists and residents, destination links with major origin markets, attitudes of custom/immigration officials, quality of tourism sector, health/medical facilities to serve tourists, efficiency of customs/immigration, accessibility of destination, visa requirement as impediment to visitation, animation
	Destination management	Appreciation of service quality importance, destination has clear social tourism policies, destination vision reflecting community values, destination vision reflecting tourists’ values, destination vision reflecting resident values, destination vision reflecting stakeholder values, developing and promoting new tourism products, development of effective destination branding, educational structure/profile of employees in tourism, efficiency of tourism/hospitality firms, entrepreneurial qualities of local tourism businesses, existence of adequate tourism education programmes, extent of foreign investment in destination tourism industry, government cooperation in development of tourism policy, level of cooperation between firms, NTO reputation, private sector commitment to tourism/hospitality education, private sector recognition of importance of sustainable tourism development, public sector commitment to tourism/hospitality education, public sector recognition of importance of sustainable tourism development, quality performance of tourism services, quality of research input into tourism policy, planning, development, resident support for tourism development, tourism development integrated with overall industry development, tourism/hospitality training responsive to visitors’ needs, situational conditions, access to venture capital, cooperation between public and private sector, investment environment, managers’ capabilities, political stability, security/safety of visitors, use of e-commerce, use of IT by firms, value for money in accommodation, value for money in shopping items, value for money in tourism destination experience
	Demand conditions	‘Fit’ between destination products and tourist preferences, international awareness of destination products, overall destination image, international awareness of destination
Panisiri, P., 2013	Destination management	Tourist guidance and information, existence of tourism programmes for visitors, public sector recognition of importance of sustainable tourism development, private sector recognition of importance of sustainable tourism development, value for money in shopping, cooperation between public and private sector, entrepreneurial qualities of local tourism businesses, efficiency of tourism/hospitality firms, existence of adequate tourism education programmes, tourism/hospitality training responsive to visitor needs, destination vision reflecting tourist values, destination vision reflecting resident values, destination vision reflecting stakeholder values, destination vision reflecting community values, developing and promoting new tourism products, destination has clear social tourism policies (e.g. people with disabilities), tourism development integrated with overall industry development, government cooperation in development of tourism policy, resident support for tourism development, public sector commitment to tourism/hospitality education and training, private sector commitment to tourism/hospitality education and training, educational structure/profile of employees in tourism, development of effective destination branding, extent of foreign investment in destination tourism industry, appreciation for importance of service quality, quality in performing tourism services, manager capabilities	Mixed approach (supply and demand)
	Created Resources	National cuisine/drinks, accessibility of cultural heritage sites, diversity of athletic activities, equipment for athletic activities, visitor centres, helpful police services, children’s facilities, telecommunications, convenience and access to local transport, water-based activities (e.g. swimming, surfing, boating, fishing), congress tourism, health resorts and spa, special events/festivals, entertainment (e.g. theatre, galleries, cinemas), community support for special events, diversity of shopping experience, amusement/theme parks, health/medical facilities to serve tourists, financial institutions and currency exchange facilities, animation, telecommunication system for tourists, destination links with major origin markets (e.g. business, trade, sporting), Visa requirements as an impediment to visitation, use of e-commerce, use of IT by firms, access to venture capital, investment environment
	Inherited nature-based resources	Access to wildlife/plant life viewing, Interpretation of wildlife/plant life, attractiveness of climate for tourism, unspoiled nature, flora and fauna (e.g. animals, birds, forests), national parks, nature-based activities (e.g. bushwalking, bird watching)
	Situational safety conditions	Security/safety of visitors, political stability, value for money in destination tourism experiences, value for money in accommodation
	Supporting hospitality factors	Quality of tourism services, accessibility of destination, communication and trust between tourists and residents, efficiency of customs/immigration, attitudes of customs/immigration officials, hospitality of residents towards tourists
	Demand conditions	Botswana’s reputation, overall destination image, international awareness of destination, ‘Fit’ between destination products and tourist preferences
	Supporting airport services conditions	Service at the airport, maintenance and convenience at the airport, personal safety, friendliness of the people, historical and cultural heritage resources, interpretation of cultural heritage sites, traditional arts

Source: Author’s own compilation

Heath (2003); Ritchie & Crouch (2003); Enright & Newton (2005); and Dwyer & Kim (2011) each provided their own set of factors contributing to competitiveness. Heath (2003:340) added factors including political stability, policies about Visa requirements, the impact of events, routes to long-haul destinations, seat availability, and natural and manmade factors. Ritchie & Crouch (2003:63) mentioned factors such as infrastructure, accessibility, facilitating resources, hospitality, special events, entertainment, quality of service, development, and branding. Enright & Newton (2005:341) added architecture, history, events, museums and galleries, city nightlife, a strong currency, steady prices, and labour cost and skill. Dwyer & Kim (2003:380) appended the elements of endowed resources, supporting factors and resources, destination management, situational conditions, and demand conditions. These authors have certain factors that they agree on and others that differ significantly. Consequently, each author compiled competitiveness factors from the identified competitiveness aspects.

The competitiveness aspects in Table 1 contains all competitiveness factors identified for a destination, but only the most prominent factors were employed in this study.

Each of these authors indicated numerous factors / aspects that contribute towards the enhanced competitiveness of a specific destination, but none of these referred to the competitiveness of South Africa as a tourism destination. This demonstrate the uniqueness of destinations that make it impossible to use a ‘one size’ fits all approach concerning factors contributing to a destination’s competitiveness. However, Du Plessis (2002); Heath (2002, 2003) and; van der Merwe (2015) researched competitive factors for South Africa in particular. These aspects were determined from a supply perspective by interviewing or handing out questionnaires to tour operators working in the tourism industry. These studies have shown that the elements of scenery, geographical features, climate, and availability of quality accommodation were identified as important for South Africa in terms of competitiveness. Giddy et al., (2017:58), concurred that the climate of a destination such as South Africa could help shape the perceptions tourists have of positive or negative experiences.

The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index of 2015 attributed South Africa’s competitiveness to its natural and cultural resources, positive business environment, and abundance of wildlife (World Economic Forum, 2015). Rogerson & Rogerson (2014:190) concurred that the growth of South Africa’s tourism on an international scale has to do with the country’s natural attractions but included its cities as foremost destinations for tourism. As can be seen in Table 1, most of the research on destination competitiveness factors has been conducted from the tourism expert’s point of view. It is important to determine competitiveness from both a demand and supply side; the destination might be competitive for tourism suppliers, but not for tourists (Omerzel, 2006:182). The tourist forms part of the foundation of a destination (Priem & Swink, 2012:7). Hence the research question: What makes South Africa competitive from a tourist point of view?

3. Materials and methods

The methodology is discussed under the focus of the study; this includes the development of the questionnaire, the sampling method, survey, data analysis, and ethical considerations.

3.1. The questionnaire

Tools such as questionnaires could assist in facilitating the accuracy of measuring and evaluating set objectives (McCuster & Gunaydin, 2015:30). This questionnaire contained both structured, closed-ended questions, and unstructured questions where the respondent could provide his/her own opinion. The questionnaire was based on research conducted by Du Plessis (2002); Porter (1990); Ritchie and Crouch (1993); and van der Merwe (2015).

The questionnaire comprises two sections: Section A gleaned a demographic profile from questions such as gender, year of birth, country of residence, reasons for visiting, annual gross income, duration of visit, and attractions visited. This section aims to set up a basic profile of the respondents who completed the questionnaires. Section B focused on the factors contributing to the competitiveness of South Africa as tourist destination based on the research conducted by Du Plessis (2002); Porter (1990); Ritchie and Crouch (1993); and van der Merwe (2015). The respondents were requested to rate the importance of the listed aspects of global destination competitiveness on a Likert scale (where 1= not competitive at all and 5= extremely competitive). The next part of section B consisted of the strengths and weaknesses of South Africa. Respondents were also asked to indicate whether they considered the aspects indicated as strengths or weaknesses of South Africa. The same aspects listed in the previous section were used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of South Africa. Even if respondents indicated a particular aspect as important for global competitiveness, it did not necessarily constitute a strength.

3.2. Sampling method and survey

The population of this study consisted of any outbound tourists (18 years and older) travelling from foreign countries to South Africa for any purpose. The field workers had access to most sections of OR Tambo international airport and asked foreign tourists who fit the specific population requirements to fill out the questionnaire. The field workers explained to respondents what the survey was about before having them fill out the questionnaire. A total of 650 questionnaires were distributed, and 619 completed questionnaires were returned.

The population for this study was tourists visiting South Africa. This study reflects a representative sample. A sample is a fraction of a population (Etikan, Musa & Alkassim, 2016:1). Because of the vast number of tourists visiting South African, the exact population is unknown. Glen’s (2009:3) sample tables show that, for populations exceeding 100 000, a sample of 400 is sufficient for the 95% confidence level. The sample size of 619 questionnaires was sufficient for this study.

The questionnaires were distributed during different times of the year with a view to obtaining a more objective opinion and profile of the respondents. From July to October of 2017, 312 questionnaires were distributed, and 307 were given out between December 2017 and January 2018. The different timeframes ensured that both South Africa’s winter (out of season) and summer (in-season) markets were captured. The fieldworkers did not have a list of the entire population at the airport to randomly choose from, and only approached respondents most convenient to ask due to the large population.

3.3. Data analysis

Data was captured using Microsoft Excel© and was analysed by means of SPSS Version 25 (2018). This analysis was two-fold, and included the descriptive analysis of the respondents followed by the exploratory analysis to determine the competitiveness factors. The reason for the exploratory factor analysis in this study was to group or summarise the thirty-two (32) competitiveness aspects into groups (factors) to better represent these aspects in terms of their importance to the respondents.

3.4. Ethical consideration

The ethical procedures that were followed complied with the University’s policy, and the study was allocated an ethical clearance number. Before conducting the study, it was important to ensure that all official channels were clear. This was done by seeking permission letters in order to conduct the study and the negotiating of access to respondents at the OR Tambo International Airport. During the process of gathering the data, it was important that the researcher ensured no harm, injury or discomfort of participants by bearing in mind any safety and health issues during this data collection process. Even though due measures were taken, this study did not involve any stages in which participants could have been psychologically or physically threatened.

4. Results and discussion

This section provides an overview of the respondents’ demographic profile and discusses the results of the factor analysis.

4.1. Summary of demographic information of the respondents

The majority of respondents were male (54%), which echoed results by Stats SA (2018:22) that indicated more male (55,3%) than female (44,7%) visitors to South Africa. Thirty-four percent (34%) of respondents were between the ages of 30 and 39, which concurred with official statistics from Stats SA (2018:22). Respondents were travelling mostly from Africa (22%) and South America (20%); Stats SA’s annual figures (2018:36) indicate that 1 618 762 of international arrivals were from Europe and 116 516 tourists travelled from South America.

Sixty-five percent of respondents stayed in South Africa for a period of between one and two weeks. This differs slightly from findings by Stats SA (2018:21), which indicate that international travellers stay in South Africa for an average of 7 days. However, Stats SA figures (2018:18) also show that tourists generally arrive in and leave South Africa in the same month, which correlates with this research in terms of an average stay of two weeks or less than a month. Most of these respondents were adventure tourists (34%), which differs from research conducted by Du Plessis (2002) where the fourth highest percentage of tourists were adventure tourists. Du Plessis (2002) study focused on the supply side and results were obtained from travel agents operating in South Africa at that time. This study also showed that the third highest percentage of tourists indicated that they had visited South Africa for eco-tourism. Hence, the top reason for tourism to South Africa had changed since 2002. However, adventure tourism remained one of the top five reasons people travel to South Africa in both of these studies.

The number of respondents travelling to the country on their own was 36%, 49% were visiting for the first time, and 53% had heard of South Africa from friends and family. The attractions most visited by respondents included Table Mountain (53%), and the Cape Point Nature Reserve (43%) and Kruger National Park (43% respectively). The vast majority (96%) of respondents indicated that they would return to South Africa because it is ‘an amazing country’ (29%) and ‘they still have so much to see’ (13%).

The following section focuses on the results of the factor analysis.

4.2. Factor analysis

Respondents were requested to indicate the importance of competitive aspects of South Africa on a 5-point Likert scale.

An aspect is suitable for factor analysis if the factor loadings in the pattern matrix are 0.3 or higher (Pallant, 2016:187). A reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s Alpha) was calculated for each factor to estimate its internal consistency. All factors with a Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) of higher than 0.743 were considered reliable, since the recommended CA for any study is ≥0.7. Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity had a significant value of p≤0.000. To verify that the data obtained is suitable for an exploratory factor analysis, it is essential to check that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure is above 0.6 and that Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity has a significance value of 0.5 or smaller. These were used to determine whether the covariance matrix was suitable for each of the deciding factors. Table 2

Table 2. Results of the factor analysis

Factors	Aspects measured in each factor Tourism competitiveness of South Africa	Factorability information	Statistical value
Factor 1: Tourism services (8 aspects)	Availability of car rental services (0.303) Effectiveness and cost of public transport (0.320) Quality of foods and wine (0.468) Variety of foods and wine (0.493) Accessibility to South Africa and other transport products (0.562) Value for money of SA (affordability) (0.703) Quality of destination service (0.766) Variety of accommodation establishments (0.867)	KMO of the sample	0.927
		Percentage of variance explained	42.41
		Cronbach’s α (CA)	0.908
		Range of factor loadings	0.303-0.867
		Mean value	3.882
		Inter-item correlation	0.564
		Rank amongst factors	2nd
Factor 2: Risk and quality (5 aspects)	Positive foreign exchange (−0.547) Variety of vacation packages (−0.574) Quality of tourism products and services (−0.664) Political stability (−0.763) Destination’s ability to manage risks (−0.865)	KMO of the sample	0.927
		Percentage of variance explained	49.02
		Cronbach’s α (CA)	0.867
		Range of factor loadings	−0.547- 0.865
		Mean value	3.760
		Inter-item correlation	0.576
		Rank amongst factors	4th
Factor 3: Unique tourism attributes (9 aspects)	Moderate Climate (0.476) Availability of adventure tourism (0.487) Hospitality of people, e.g. friendliness (0.513) Exposure to diversity and history of cultures (0.541) Mix of recreational activities, e.g. hiking (0.606) Availability of world heritage sites (0.616) Variety and availability of fauna and flora (0.817) Unique scenery (0.858) Availability of wildlife in the area (0.885)	KMO of the sample	0.927
		Percentage of variance explained	55.14
		Cronbach’s α (CA)	0.916
		Range of factor loadings	0.476-0.858
		Mean value	3.886
		Inter-item correlation	0.549
		Rank amongst factors	1st
Factor 4: Locality (4 aspects)	Short-haul destination (−0.460) Long-haul destination (−0.470) Safety and security (+0.414) Availability of water and electricity (+0.425)	KMO of the sample	0.927
		Percentage of variance explained	59.01
		Cronbach’s α (CA)	0.743
		Range of factor loadings	−0.460-0.425
		Mean value	3.793
		Inter-item correlation	0.418
		Rank amongst factors	3rd
Factor 5: Entertainment and amenities (6 aspects)	Awareness/image/brand (0.322) Availability of internet (0.449) Different languages spoken in SA (11) (0.574) Quality and availability of superstructures (0.763) Special events hosted in the area (0.798) Provision of entertainment choices (0.866)	KMO of the sample	0.927
		Percentage of variance explained	61.81
		Cronbach’s α (CA)	0.893
		Range of factor loadings	0.322-0.866
		Mean value	3.622
		Inter-item correlation	0.582
		Rank amongst factors	5th

Five factors were identified after conducting the factor analysis.

5. Results

5.1. Factor 1: Tourism services

Tourism services is the second most important of the five factors determining the competitiveness of South Africa, with a mean value of 3.88 and a Cronbach’s α of 0.908. This factorconfirms and supports literature by, Dwyer & Kim (2003:383), Ritchie & Crouch (2003:63), Go & Govers (2000), Gomezjl & Mihalic (2008:298). Go & Govers (2000:80) highlighted the quality of services as an essential factor to consider when measuring a destination’s competitive position against that of other destinations. Dwyer & Kim (2003:383) concurs that the provision of quality tourism services ‘enhances a destination’s competitive advantage’. Lee & King (2009:251) identified accommodation as a factor that contributes to the competitiveness of a destination. The attributes of this factor could differ, depending on the destination (Du Plessis et al., 2015:9).

5.2. Factor 2: Risk and quality

This factor labelled risk and quality was ranked the fourth most important competitive factor with a mean value of 3.76 and Cronbach’s α of 0.867. Included under risk and quality is the aspect of strong currency, indicated as important in a study by Enright & Newton (2005:346). Saayman & Saayman (2008:93) concurred by stating that exchange rates are considered one of the factors that influence demand in tourism. Dwyer et al. (2000:9) proclaimed that competitiveness is ‘a general concept that encompasses price differentials coupled with exchange rate movements, productivity levels of various components of the tourist industry and qualitative factors affecting the attractiveness or otherwise of a destination’. Other studies, such as those of Dwyer & Kim (2003:373) and Gomezjl and Mihalic (2008:298), recognised the contribution of quality service to tourism competitiveness, but did not directly refer to the quality of the tourism products. Furthermore, a study conducted by Crouch & Ritchie (2003) referred to the risk-taking ability of a destination as a way in which a destination could enhance its competitiveness. Phakdisoth & Kim (2007:228) found the aspect of political stability to be an essential contribution to the tourism competitiveness of South Africa.

5.3. Unique tourism attributes

Factor 3, unique tourism attributes, was ranked the most important competitiveness factor with a mean value of 3.88 and a Cronbach’s α of 0.916. Tourism attributes are indicated by various researchers to be the most important aspect contributing to the competitiveness of tourist destinations (Dwyer & Kim, 2003:380; Ritchie & Crouch, 2003:139; Du Plessis et al., 2015:9). This factor included attributes that are unique to South Africa, such as availability of wildlife and the hospitality of the country’s inhabitants. No research by prominent tourism scholars such as Dwyer & Kim (2003), Heath (2003), or Ritchie & Crouch (2003) mentions the availability of wildlife as a contributing factor to the destination’s competitiveness. This could be because South Africa as a destination is well-known for its availability of wildlife and these results are relevant to the specific destination. However, Naudé & Saayman (2005:387) clearly state that tourists visiting Africa are not only interested in the climate, but also in experiencing wildlife in South Africa. The African Dream Website (Open Africa, 2000 as cited by Heath, 2002:343) points out that South Africa’s wildlife element could contribute to the destination’s tourism becoming one of its most valuable products. According to the SWOT analysis conducted by the South African Tourism Report (2016:15), the viewing of wildlife is referred to as a strength of South Africa and ‘important to South Africa’. The hospitality aspect is also mentioned by other authors such as Ritchie and Crouch (2003:139), and Dwyer & Kim (2003:377). Dwyer & Kim (2003:386) state that hospitality refers to the ‘perceived friendliness of the local population and community attitudes towards tourists’. The scenery aspect was identified by Du Plessis (2002:83) in her study on the factors that play a role in global competitiveness.

5.4. Locality

Locality was ranked the third most important competitiveness factor for South Africa with a mean value of 3.79 and a Cronbach’s α of 0.743. The locality factor included the aspects of long-haul destination, short-haul destination, availability of water and electricity, and safety and security. It is clear that all of the aspects of this factor are external, which means that tourism business owners have no direct control over them. Heath (2002:340) states that safety and security are important in determining the competitiveness of a destination. Dwyer & Kim (2003:397) also stress that safety and security are ‘key elements of destination competitiveness’. This is also evident in research conducted by authors such as Ritchie & Crouch (2003:237), Enright & Newton (2004:778), as well as Lee & King (2009:251) who identified safety and security as contributing factors to a destination’s competitiveness. Theory suggests that the tourism demand for a given destination will vary according to the distance to be travelled to the destination (Zillinger, 2005 cited by Fang Bao & Mckercher, 2008:102). In other words, the greater the distance the less likely tourists are to go there (Fang Bao & Mckercher, 2008:102). Therefore, the results in terms of the importance of safety and security of people is supported by literature.

5.5. Entertainment and amenities

The entertainment and amenities factor had a mean value of 3.622 and a Cronbach’s α of 0.893. The provision of entertainment choices is supported by various authors in literature, such as Heath (2002:338), Dwyer & Kim (2003:380); and Ritchie & Crouch (2003:124). Heath (2002:338) claims that the provision of entertainment and the image of the destination could influence the competitiveness of a destination. Authors Ritchie & Crouch (2003:63), as well as Du Plessis et al. (2015:9) agree with the identification of suprastructures as an aspect to consider when considering the competitiveness of a destination.

When the results of this study were compared with those of previous studies (Table 3) on the supply side of South Africa as a tourist destination (Du Plessis, 2002; Van der Merwe, 2015) and destination competitiveness, there were clear differences in terms of competitiveness factors.

Table 3. Comparison of competitiveness factors

Supply	Supply	Demand	Literature as indicated in Chapter 3
2002	2015	2018	2000–2016
Du Plessis	Van der Merwe	Current	Literature
Safety	Safety and security	Safety and security	Safety
Value for money	Value for money	Value for money (affordability)	Events
Attitude towards tourists	Locals’ attitudes towards tourists	Hospitality of people, e.g. friendliness	Activities
Quality of service	Quality of tourism services	Unique scenery	Quality of service
Geographical features	Quality of experience on offer	Availability of wildlife in the area	Infrastructure

Source: Author’s own compilation

It is evident from Table 3 that safety and security – whether researched from a demand or supply perspective – remains a crucial factor over time, especially in South Africa. Value for money and local attitudes towards tourists or hospitality experienced were deemed as important in 2002 and 2015 as in this demand-side study. Quality of service was identified as important in supply-side studies but did not surface in the top five aspects of the demand study.

Overall, the demand side study (2018) showed stronger focus on destination attributes such as wildlife and scenery, whereas the supply side studies (2002 & 2015) focused primarily on the managerial aspects such as quality of service. In other words, the demand side (tourists) emphasised external aspects as essential and the supply side (tourism role-players such as tour operators) regarded internal aspects as important aspects of competitiveness. Consequently, it can be concluded that the most important competitiveness aspects remained the same.

6. Findings and recommendations

In the past, most of the studies focusing on competitiveness were conducted from a supply side, which left a gap for research from a demand side. Therefore, the question remains: What is the tourist’s opinion of what makes South Africa competitive?

Five factors were identified in the study: (1) tourism services, (2) risk and quality, (3) unique tourism attributes, (4) locality, (5) entertainment and amenities.

• (1) The first finding highlights the difference in factors identified between demand and supply-side approaches. The demand side focused more on factors that included external aspects (unique scenery and wildlife) and the supply side indicated factors such as value for money and quality of service as important for competitiveness. Consequently, it can be concluded that the opinions of tourism experts on what makes South Africa competitive are different from that of tourists.

The implication is that a destination cannot focus solely on expert opinions to determine its competitiveness, as tourist opinions may differ. Therefore, research on the competitiveness of a destination such as South Africa should be ongoing and include the perspectives of tour operators and tourists. DMOs should stay informed of the changing perceptions of both the supply and demand side to be able to manage destination competitiveness factors more sustainably.

• (2) The most important competitiveness factor, according to respondents, was unique tourism attributes, which included moderate climate, availability of adventure tourism, the hospitality of people, e.g. friendliness; exposure to diversity and history of cultures; combination of recreational activities, e.g. hiking; availability of world heritage sites; variety and availability of fauna and flora; unique scenery, and availability of wildlife in the area. Tourists believe that South Africa’s competitiveness lies in its unique attributes not to be found anywhere else.

The implication is that these aspects need to be continuously managed to uphold the relevant standard. Specific marketing campaigns should be launched to develop awareness of the unique products South Africa has to offer.

• (3) The third finding implies that tourism services are the second most important competitiveness factor. These factors that are mainly controlled by business managers and product owners include the availability of car rental services, effectiveness and cost of public transport, quality of foods and wine, variety of foods and wine, accessibility to South Africa, value for money in SA (affordability), quality of destination service, and variety of accommodation establishments.

The implication here is that tourism business owners, together with the National Tourism Board and government, must focus their attention on the management of services currently provided in South Africa. Seeing as tourists indicated a destination’s services as one of its most important competitiveness factors, it is important to evaluate the services currently offered and how to better manage them.

• (4) The fourth and very important finding indicates safety and security as important for both supply and demand sides in South Africa.

This means that, regardless of the approach followed or the country researched, tourism stakeholders must pay attention to the safety and security of a destination in order to improve its competitiveness. It is essential to evaluate the current safety of a destination such as South Africa by continuously conducting research on the topic. The government should focus on creating an image of the country as a stable and secure destination for tourists and inhabitants by means of visible policing.

7. Conclusion

It is clear that tourism competitiveness can be researched from both a supply and demand side, and that the majority of current studies on tourism competitiveness is conducted from a supply perspective. The aspects that contribute to competitiveness differ depending on the research approach, which emphasises the importance of research from the demand side (tourist’s perspective) as well. One competitiveness aspect that remains essential for the competitiveness of South Africa – regardless of the approach followed – is safety and security; the aspect has remained important over the years for both the demand and supply side.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the North-West University (NWU) (Postgraduate Bursary and Institutional bursary) and North-West Tourism Board for their contribution to the funding of this Master’s study.

DF Cronjé. 2019. Demand analysis of South Africa as competitive tourist destination. Masters Dissertation. North-West University.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by North-West University.