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Abstract
Since 2007, the Palestinian Authority has implemented a strategy of financialized urbanization in response to economic crises precipitated by Israel’s settler-colonial stranglehold on the Palestinian economy. This article argues that financialized urbanization operates as a mechanism to expand the local banking sector and as a modality of settler-colonial alienation. Examining the joint-ownership structures of companies whose activities straddle real estate and financial markets, the article shows where land ownership in the West Bank ultimately lies. The study highlights qualitative changes in money lending and the extended reach of finance to emphasize the risks of financial collapse. Understanding finance capital and settler colonialism as systems predicated on managing risk for maximum returns, the discussion draws their relation to each other into a single analytical framework to center the question of land dispossession and racialization at the heart of financialized urbanization.
Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/0377919X.2021.2015995
Acknowledgments
This article is based on a combination of the author’s 2017 SOAS master’s thesis, “Financial Re-engineering through Affordable Housing: Mapping the Expansion of Credit in the West Bank,” advised by Adam Hanieh, and a working paper presented at the seventh annual New Directions in Palestinian Studies workshop titled, “Who Owns Palestine?” held at Brown University. The author would like to thank Beshara Doumani, Paul Kohlbry, and the organizers of the conference for their invitation and initial feedback on the article. Between these two events, this author and article have benefited from feedback from Laleh Khalili, Alys Eve Weinbaum, Craig Willse, Andrew Ross, and Dean Itsuji Saranillio; and conversations with Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Tasnim Chaaban, Noura Erakat, Mezna Qato, Omar Jabary Salamanca, Kareem Rabie, Rana Barakat, and Nasser Abourahme. Finally, the author would like to thank Sherene Seikaly for her generous feedback and guidance across various workshops and iterations of the ideas presented here. While at SOAS, this research was in part supported by the Tibawi Trust Award.
Endnotes
Notes
1 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report to the Ad Hoc Liaison Committee, World Bank Group, 30 April 2019, p. 3, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/942481555340123420/pdf/Economic-Monitoring-Report-to-the-Ad-Hoc-Liaison-Committee.pdf.
2 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report, p. 7; Palestine Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2016, “Table 17: Labour Force Participation Rate of Individuals Aged 15 Years and above in Palestine by Sex and Governorate, 2000–2018” [in Arabic] (Ramallah: PCBS), p. 69, http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Downloads/book2266.pdf.
3 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report, pp. 8, 11.
4 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report, p. 8.
5 Palestine Economic Policy Research Institute (MAS), Palestinian Economic Bulletin no. 157 (October 2019), https://www.mas.ps/files/server/2019/PALESTINIAN%20ECONOMIC%20BULLETIN/B157-En.pdf.
6 Reuters staff, “Israeli Electric Company Cuts Power to West Bank over Palestinian Debt,” Reuters, 18 December 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-power/israeli-electric-company-cuts-power-to-west-bank-over-palestinian-debt-idUSKBN1YM1GK.
7 Heiner Flassbeck, Patrick Kaczmarczyk, and Michael Paetz, Macroeconomic Structure, Financial Markets, and the Financing of Government Activity: Lessons for Palestine (Ramallah: MAS, 2018), https://www.mas.ps/files/server/2019/Financing%20of%20Government%20ActivityPMACLEAN.pdf. In 2011, individual members of congressional committees overseeing the allocation of U.S. aid to Palestinians placed informal holds on aid to “send a message” regarding the PA’s statehood bid at the United Nations and attempts to form a unity government with Hamas. See Jim Zanotti citing Chairwoman Kay Granger, U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians, Congressional Research Service, RS22967, 4 April 2012, p. 3, https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20120404_RS22967_9cdf4a34200a0b2dcccf6f625e6024cbad1533ff.pdf.
8 Wafa News Agency, “PMA Financial Follow-Up Unit Admitted as Member in the Egmont Group,” 4 July 2019, http://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/98903.
9 Flassbeck, Kaczmarczyk, and Paetz, Macroeconomic Structure; Toufic Haddad, Palestine Ltd.: Neoliberalism and Nationalism in the Occupied Territory (London: I.B. Taurus, 2016), pp. 188–98.
10 Palestinian National Authority, Palestinian Reform and Development Plan 2008–2011, 1 January 2008, pp. 8–10, https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-208834/; Adam Hanieh, “The Oslo Illusion,” Jacobin, 21 April 2013, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2013/04/the-oslo-illusion.
11 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities by Economic Activities, 1996–2016,” Time Series Data, Statistics, formerly available at https://www.pma.ps/en/Statistics//TimeSeriesData.
12 Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 26. Gilmore examines the more than 450 percent increase in the number of U.S. prisons since the 1980s through changes in California’s political economy. In demonstrating that such expansion was not the result of increased crime, she locates the prison as a spatial fix, a geographical solution to California’s crises of surplus in land, finance capital, labor, and state capacity. The prison, as fixed capital and a social formation, is the site through which value and its attendant relations circulate.
13 Christopher Harker, “Debt Space: Topologies, Ecologies and Ramallah, Palestine,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 35, no. 4 (August 2017): p. 610, https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775816686973.
14 Harker, “Debt Space.”
15 Harker, “Debt Space.”
16 Harker, “Debt Space.”
17 Henri Lefebvre, Eleonore Kofman, and Elizabeth Lebas, eds., Writings on Cities (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).
18 Omar Jabary Salamanca, Mezna Qato, Kareem Rabie, and Sobhi Samour, “Past Is Present: Settler Colonialism in Palestine,” Settler Colonial Studies 2, no. 1 (2012): pp. 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2012.10648823.
19 Michelle Buckley and Adam Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization: Tracing the Property-Finance Nexus in Dubai and the Gulf,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 38, no. 1 (January 2014): pp. 155–75, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12084.
20 Lisa Lowe, The Intimacies of Four Continents (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015), p. 127; Brenna Bhandar, Colonial Lives of Property: Law, Land, and Racial Regimes of Ownership (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2018), pp. 14, 26, 36–59.
21 Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Beshara Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger Owen, ed., New Perspectives on Property and Land in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000); Michael Hudson, “Reconstructing the Origins of Interest-Bearing Debt and the Logic of Clean Slates,” in Debt and Economic Renewal in the Ancient Near East, ed. Michael Hudson and Marc Van De Mieroop (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2002), pp. 7–59.
22 Sherene Seikaly, Men of Capital: Scarcity and Economy in Mandate Palestine (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015).
23 Seikaly, Men of Capital, pp. 53, 105.
24 The World Bank, Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Grant in the Amount of US$5 Million
from the Trust Fund for Gaza and West Bank (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2019), p. 9, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/405081565278085810/pdf/Gaza-and-West-Bank-Real-Estate-Registration-Project.pdf.
25 World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, p. 9.
26 World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, p. 14.
27 Omar Jabary Salamanca, “Hooked on Electricity: The Charged Political Economy of Electrification in the Palestinian West Bank” (working paper, New Directions in Palestinian Studies workshop, Brown University Center for Middle East Studies, 2014), p. 17, https://palestinianstudies.org/workshops/2014/people/omar-jabary-salamanca.
28 Jabary Salamanca, “Hooked on Electricity,” p. 17.
29 The World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, pp. 2–8; United States Government Accountability Office, West Bank and Gaza Aid: Should Funding Resume, Increased Oversight of Subawardee Compliance with USAID’s Antiterrorism Policies and Procedures May Reduce Risks, GAO-21-332 (Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office, March 2021), https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-21-332.pdf.
30 The World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, p. 12.
31 Adam Hanieh, Capitalism and Class in the Gulf Arab States (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 160–65.
32 Buckley and Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization.”
33 Manuel B. Aalbers and Brett Christophers, “Centering Housing in the Political Economy,” Housing, Theory and Society 31, no. 4 (2013): p. 376, https://doi.org/10.1080/14036096.2014.947082.
34 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What Is Property?: An Inquiry into the Principle of Right of Government, trans. Benjamin R. Tucker, accessed via the Anarchist Library, 19 November 2021, published ca. 1840, chaps. I, IV, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-what-is-property-an-inquiry-into-the-principle-of-right-and-of-governmen.
35 PIF, Annual Report, 2014 (Ramallah: Palestine Investment Fund, 2014), p. 4, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/AnnualReport2014en.pdf.
36 PIF, Annual Report, 2009, (Ramallah: Palestine Investment Fund, 2009), pp. 26–50, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Annual_report2009en.pdf.
37 PIF, Annual Report, 2015 (Ramallah: Palestine Investment Fund, 2015), p. 26, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/AnnualReport2015en.pdf.
38 Amaar Group, “Al-Reehan Model Neighborhood,” July 2017, https://www.amaar.ps/en/project/al-reehan-neighborhood.
39 National Aluminum and Profile Company, “Al-Reehan Neighborhood,” July 2017, http://napco.ps/page.php?id=194eby103659Y194eb.
40 Amaar Group, “Al-Reehan Neighborhood.”
41 PIF, Annual Report, 2016 (Ramallah: Palestine Investment Fund, 2015), p. 33, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Annual_report2016en.pdf.
42 Buckley and Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization,” p. 168.
43 Kareem Rabie, Palestine Is Throwing a Party and the Whole World Is Invited: Capital and State Building in the Contemporary West Bank (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021), p. 109.
44 PIF, Affordable Housing and Mortgage Finance Program: Opening New Doors (Ramallah: PIF, 2008), p. 3.
45 PIF, Opening New Doors.
46 Amaar Group, “Al-Reehan Neighborhood.”
47 Rawabi Newsletter, Rawabi Home, “New Mortgage Program Designed to Qualify More Buyers in Rawabi” (Winter 2014), p. 22, https://www.rawabi.ps/downloads/1525786254.pdf.
48 PIF, Annual Report, 2016, p. 22.
49 PIF, Annual Report, 2016.
50 Buckley and Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization,” p. 168.
51 Buckley and Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization,” p. 161.
52 Buckley and Hanieh, “Diversification by Urbanization,” p. 168.
53 State of Palestine, Ministry of Public Works and Housing, Third United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) (Ramallah: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, 2014), https://uploads.habitat3.org/hb3/Palestine-National-Report.pdf. Affordability is calculated based on annual household income being four times greater than the cost of housing.
54 Massar, “About Massar,” July 2017, https://www.massar.com/?TemplateId=info&PageId=24&MenuId=9&Lang=1.
55 Hanieh, Capitalism and Class, p. 165.
56 Toufic Haddad, “Martyrs and Markets: Exploring the Palestinian Visual Public Sphere,” in Media and Political Contestation in the Contemporary Arab World: A Decade of Change, ed. Lena Jayyusi and Anne Sofie Roald (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 91–128.
57 Palestine Real Estate Investment Co., “Investments and Projects” [in Arabic], 9 August 2017, http://prico.ps/ar/CmsPage/Project?projectId=18.
58 PSE, Annual Report, 2016 [in Arabic] (Ramallah: Palestine Development and Investment Company, 2016), https://static.mubasher.info/File.Mix_Announcement_File/FB878722-B4EB-402D-9638-390B6C10F7CC.pdf.
59 Paltel Group, Annual Report, 2016 [in Arabic] (Ramallah: Palestine Telecommunications, 2016), http://www.paltelfoundation.ps/uploads/PG_Foundation_small.pdf. In 1996 and again in 2016 the firm was granted a twenty-year operating license to provide Internet services.
60 Paltel Group, “Investor Monthly Newsletter Issue #87,” Palestine Exchange, June 2017.
61 Maria Carlo Rossotto, West Bank and Gaza Telecommunications Sector Note: Introducing Competition in the Palestinian Telecommunications Sector, The World Bank, United Nations, January 2008, https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-206729/.
62 Breakdown of profits were not recorded prior to 2009.
63 Aalbers and Christophers, “Centering Housing in the Political Economy,” p. 376.
64 Vladimir Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism: A Popular Outline, rev. ed. (1920; repr. New York: International Publishers, 1999), p. 93.
65 Composed from Paltel annual reports from 2010 to 2015.
66 Adam Hanieh, “The Internationalisation of Gulf Capital and Palestinian Class Formation,” Capital and Class 35, no. 1 (February 2011): pp. 81–106, https://doi.org/10.1177/0309816810392006.
67 Rabie, “Palestine Is Throwing a Party,” p. 1; and Rabie, in discussion with the author, 28 July 2017.
68 Philippe Breul, Stéphane Czarnocki, Jeremiah Grossman, Robert Stone, Future of Financial Inclusion through Electronic Banking Models in Palestine and the Resulting Regulatory Implications (Oxford: Oxford Policy Management and Shore Bank International for AED, 2011), p. 13, https://www.findevgateway.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/mfg-en-paper-future-of-financial-inclusion-through-electronic-banking-models-in-palestine-and-the-resulting-regulatory-implications-feb-2011.pdf; PMA, “Instruction No. 05-2008: Capital and Financial Indicators,” part 7/7, 29 December 2008, pp. 30–31, https://www.pma.ps/Portals/0/Users/002/02/2/Legislation/Instructions/Banks/2008/instructions-5-2008.pdf.
69 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
70 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
71 Palestinian National Authority, National Development Plan, 2011–13: Establishing the State, Building Our Future, (Ramallah: Palestinian National Authority, April 2011); Harker, “Debt Space,” p. 602.
72 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
73 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
74 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
75 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
76 Compiled from PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
77 PMA, Financial Stability Report, 2009 (Ramallah: Palestine Monetary Authority, June 2010), https://www.pma.ps/Portals/0/Users/002/02/2/Publications/English/Annual%20Reports/Financial%20Stability%20Reports/FSR_2009_English.pdf.
78 PMA, Financial Stability Report, 2009.
79 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
80 The unofficial English translation of the full text of the law is available for download at: State of Palestine, Law on the Encouragement of Investment in Palestine (1998), UNCTAD Compendium of Investment Laws, https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-laws/laws/201/state-of-palestine-law-on-investment. The quote comes from p. 36 of that PDF.
81 PIF, Annual Report, 2014 (Ramallah: Palestinian Investment Fund, 2014), http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/AnnualReport2014en.pdf.
82 PIF, Annual Report, 2014, p. 35.
83 PIF, Annual Report, 2014, p. 35.
84 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
85 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
86 PIF, Annual Report, 2012 (Ramallah: Palestinian Investment Fund, 2012), p. 34, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Annual_report2012en.pdf; PIF, Annual Report, 2013 (Ramallah: Palestinian Investment Fund, 2013), p. 30, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/AnnualReport2013en.pdf.
87 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
88 PIF, Annual Report, 2010 (Ramallah: Palestinian Investment Fund, 2013), p. 41, http://www.pif.ps/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Annual_report2010en.pdf.
89 PIF, Annual Report, 2010.
90 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
91 Rawabi Newsletter, Rawabi Home, p. 22.
92 Isabel Kershner, “New Palestinian Town in West Bank Awaits Israel’s Approval for Water,” New York Times, 26 August 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/27/world/middleeast/rawabi-west-bank-palestinians-israel.html.
93 Kershner, “New Palestinian Town in West Bank Awaits Israel’s Approval for Water.”
94 Q-Center, Q-Center Map, 2021, https://www.qcenterrawabi.ps/map.
95 Ursula Paravicini, “Public Spaces as a Contribution to Egalitarian Cities,” in City and Gender: International Discourse on Gender, Urbanism and Architecture, ed. Ulla Terlinden (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2003), pp. 57–80.
96 Michael Borgstede, “West Bank Buzz: The Quiet Rise of a Palestinian Silicon Valley,” World Crunch, 24 October 2012, https://worldcrunch.com/tech-science/west-bank-buzz-the-quiet-rise-of-a-palestinian-silicon-valley#.
97 Borgstede, “West Bank Buzz.”
98 Ian Hathaway, “The Geographic Concentration of Venture Capital(ists),” Ian Hathaway (blog), 28 April 2020, http://www.ianhathaway.org/blog/2020/4/28/the-geographic-concentration-of-venture-capitalists.
99 Clifford Chance LLP, Treasurer’s Companion: Capital Markets and Funding (London: Clifford Chance LLP and The Association of Corporate Treasurers, 2014), p. 52.
100 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
101 Palestine Investment Fund, Annual Report, 2013.
102 PMA, “Distribution of Loans by Sector 1996–2017,” Time Series Data, Statistics, formerly available at https://www.pma.ps/en/Statistics//TimeSeriesData.
103 PMA, Financial Stability Report, 2015 (Ramallah: Palestine Monetary Authority, October 2016), https://www.pma.ps/Portals/0/Users/002/02/2/Publications/English/Annual%20Reports/Financial%20Stability%20Reports/FS2015_enfinal.pdf.
104 Palestine Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Annual Report, 2011 (Ramallah: Palestine Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2011), http://www.sahem-inv.com/reports/researches/en/20110412154749.pdf.
105 PMA, “Distribution of Credit Facilities.”
106 Rana Barakat, “Writing/Righting Palestine Studies: Settler Colonialism, Indigenous Sovereignty and Resisting the Ghosts of History, Settler Colonial Studies 8, no. 3 (2018): pp. 349–63, https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2017.1300048; Glen Coulthard, Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), p. 14; K- Sue Park, “Money, Mortgages, and the Conquest of America,” Law and Social Inquiry 41, no. 4 (2016): pp. 1006–35, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12222; J. Kēhaulani Kauanui, Paradoxes of Hawaiian Sovereignty: Land, Sex, and the Colonial Politics of State Nationalism (Durham, NC: Duke University, 2018); Manu Karuka, Empire’s Tracks: Indigenous Nations, Chinese Workers, and the Transcontinental Railroad (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2018); Noura Erakat, Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019).
107 Karuka, Empire’s Tracks, p. xii.
108 Raja Shehadeh, “The Land Law of Palestine: An Analysis of the Definition of State Lands,” JPS 11, no. 2 (Winter 1982): p. 90, https://doi.org/10.2307/2536271.
109 Shehadeh, “The Land Law of Palestine,” p. 90.
110 Shehadeh, “The Land Law of Palestine,” pp. 87–91.
111 Shehadeh, “The Land Law of Palestine,” p. 94.
112 Bhandar, Colonial Lives, p. 2.
113 Bhandar, Colonial Lives, p. 4.
114 Charles Anderson, “The British Mandate and the Crisis of Palestinian Landlessness, 1929–1936,” Middle Eastern Studies 54, no. 2 (2018): pp. 171–215, https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2017.1372427. Money lenders charged interest rates as high as 50 percent.
115 Seikaly, Men of Capital, p. 9; Anderson, “The British Mandate,” p. 16.
116 Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine, p. 39; Anderson, “The British Mandate,” pp. 1, 5; Mahmoud Yazbak, “From Poverty to Revolt: Economic Factors in the Outbreak of the 1936 Rebellion in Palestine,” Middle Eastern Studies 36, no. 3 (July 2000): pp. 93–113, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284093.
117 Alaa Tartir, “Farming for Freedom: The Shackled Palestinian Agricultural Sector,” in Crisis and Conflict in Agriculture, ed. Rami Zurayk, Eckart Woertz, and Rachel Bahn (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International, October 2018), pp. 144–48.
118 Bhandar, Colonial Lives, pp. 9, 13.
119 Gilmore, Golden Gulag, p. 54.
120 Proudhon, What Is Property?, chap. II.
121 Proudhon, What Is Property?, chap. I.
122 Karl Marx, “Letter to J. B. Schweizer,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works, vol. 20 (New York: International Publishers, 1985), pp. 26–33; Robert Nichols, “Theft Is Property! The Recursive Logic of Dispossession,” Political Theory 46, no. 1 (February 2018): pp. 14–15, https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591717701709.
123 Coulthard, Red Skin, White Masks, p. 13.
124 Leanne Betasamosake Simpson, As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom through Radical Resistance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2020), p. 45.
125 Robert Nichols, Theft Is Property! Dispossession and Critical Theory (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2020), pp. 30–31.
126 Nichols, “Theft Is Property,” p. 5.
127 Nichols, “Theft Is Property,” p. 15.
128 Patrick Wolfe, “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native,” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (December 2006): p. 400, https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240. In 1887, the Dawes Severalty Act set in motion the Indian allotment program that broke up tribal land into individual parcels, restricting the proprietors to selling the parcels exclusively to white settlers. The introduction of private property functioned to individualize tribal society, effectively breaking up communal ties to the land. Ultimately, allotment served the dual purpose of accelerating the decline in the number of natives as well as transferring land out of native possession.
129 Nichols, “Theft Is Property,” p. 15.
130 Nichols, “Theft Is Property,” p. 15.
131 Flassbeck, Kaczmarczy, and Paetz, “Macroeconomic Structure,” p. 28.
132 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report, p. 3.
133 The World Bank, Economic Monitoring Report, p. 11.
134 Gilmore, Golden Gulag, p. 54.
135 Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, Race for Profit: How Banks and the Real Estate Industry Undermined Black Homeownership (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Tareq Radi
Tareq Radi is a doctoral student in American studies at New York University. He is currently preparing a dissertation that examines the financialization of housing in the West Bank as a process of financial and social reengineering rooted within a settler-colonial history of U.S. real estate development and empire building in Palestine.