Chapter Six: The Erosion of Japan's Anti-militaristic Principles

Abstract

Is Japan on a path towards assuming a greater military role internationally, or has the recent military normalisation ground to a halt since the premiership of Junichiro Koizumi? In this book, Christopher W. Hughes assesses developments in defence expenditure, civil–military relations, domestic and international military–industrial complexes, Japan's procurement of regional and global power-projection capabilities, the expansion of US–Japan cooperation, and attitudes towards nuclear weapons, constitutional revision and the use of military force.

In all of these areas, dynamic and long-term changes outweigh Japan's short-term political logjam over security policy. Hughes argues that many post-war constraints on Japan's military role are still eroding, and that Tokyo is moving towards a more assertive military role and strengthened US–Japan cooperation. Japan's remilitarisation will boost its international security role and the dominance of the US–Japan alliance in regional and global security affairs, but will need to be carefully managed if it is not to become a source of destabilising tensions.

Notes

Sabine Frühstück, Uneasy Warriors: Gender, Memory, and Popular Culture in the Japanese Army (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007), p. 24.

Ibid.

Ibid., pp. 128–38; Sabine Frühstück and Eyal ben Ari, ‘“Now We Show It All!” Normalization and the Management of Violence in Japan's Armed Forces’, Journal of Japanese Studies, vol. 28, no. 1, 2002, pp. 1–39.

Boeichohen, Boei Hakusho 2004 (Tokyo: Zaimusho Insatsukyoku, 2004), p. 309; ‘Boeisho ga Pairoto Joken Kanwa, Akuryoku Sanju Kiro Miman, Megane OK’, Yomiuri Shimbun, 11 August 2008, http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/news/20080811-OYT1T00473.htm; ‘MSDF Women To Serve on Ships’, Japan Times, 26 September 2008, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20080926f4.html.

Frühstück, Uneasy Warriors, pp. 36–9.

John Endicott, Japan's Nuclear Option: Political, Technical and Strategic Factors (New York: Praeger, 1975).

‘Jimin Seichokai “Kaku Hoyu no Giron Hitsuyo” Shusho wa Sangensoku o Kyocho’, Asahi Shimbun, 15 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610150124.html.

‘Kaku Hoyu “Giron wa Daiji” Aso Gaisho, Kokkai de Hatsugen’, ibid., 19 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610180447.html; ‘Aso Gaisho, ‘Kaku Hoyu Giron Fusatsu Shinai’, ibid., 19 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610180297.html; Kokkai Shugiin Kaigiroku Gaimuiinkai, 2go, 25 October 2006, p. 112, available at http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp.

‘Nakagawashi, Bei de no Jizetsu de “Kaku Giron”, Futatabi Yoto Fukai’, Asahi Shimbun, 28 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610280290.html.

‘Kim Diabetic, May Nuke Japan, Nakagawa Says’, Japan Times Online, 21 October 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061021a4.html.

‘Abe Affirms that Japan Will Still Shun Nuclear Weapons’, ibid., 17 October 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061017a8.html; ‘Aso Keen To Explore Nukes, But Abe Says Debate Is “Finished”‘, Japan Times Online, 19 October 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20061109a2.html.

‘Abe Says No to Nukes But Allows Discussion’, ibid., 9 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061109a2.html; Kokkai Shugiin Kaigiroku Kokka Kihon Seisaku Iinkai Godo Chosakai, 2go, 8 November 2006, pp. 13–15, available at http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp.

‘Cabinet To Cease Talking about Nukes, Abe Says’, Japan Times Online, 21 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20061121b2.html.

‘Nihon no Kaku Busoron, Chugoku mo Kennen Busshu Daitoryo ga Hanno’, Asahi Shimbun, 17 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610170272.html.

‘No Japan Nukes: Rice’, Japan Times Online, 12 October 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20061015a2.html.

Jim Lobe, ‘US Neo-Conservatives Call for Japanese Nukes, Regime Change in North Korea’, Japan Focus, 17 October 2006, http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2249. For an earlier articulation of the strategy of pushing Japan towards nuclearisation to counter North Korea, see Ted Galen Carpenter, ‘Options for Dealing with North Korea’, Foreign Policy Briefing, no. 73, 6 January 2003, http://www.cato.org/pubs/fpbriefs/fpb73.pdf. For a discussion of the ‘Japan Card’ strategy in general, see Kurt M. Campbell and Tsuyoshi Sunohara, ‘Japan: Thinking the Unthinkable’, in Kurt M. Campbell, Robert J. Einhorn and Mitchell B. Reiss (eds), The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), p. 246.

‘Wen Lauds Abe's Non-Nuclear Stand’, Japan Times Online, 25 October 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20061024a5.html.

‘Japan Talk of Nukes “Not Desirable”: Ban’, Japan Times Online, 7 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061107a1.html.

Tetsuo Maeda and Shigeaki Ijima, Kokkai Shingi kara Boeiron Yomitoku (Tokyo: Sanseido, 2003), p. 72.

Campbell and Sunohara, ‘Japan: Thinking the Unthinkable’, p. 223.

Katsuhisa Furukawa, ‘Nuclear Option, Arms Control, and Extended Deterrence: In Search of a New Framework for Japan's Nuclear Policy’, in Benjamin L. Self and Jeffrey W. Thompson (eds), Japan's Nuclear Option: Security, Politics and Policy in the 21st Century (Washington DC: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2003), pp. 104–5.

Yuri Kase, ‘The Costs and Benefits of Japan's Nuclearization: An Insight into the 1968/1970 Internal Report’, Non-Proliferation Review, vol. 8, no. 2, Summer 2001, pp. 55–68; Llewelyn Hughes, ‘Why Japan Will Not Go Nuclear (Yet): International and Domestic Constraints on the Nuclearization of Japan’, International Security, vol. 31, no. 4, Spring 2007, pp. 77–80.

International Panel on Fissile Materials, Global Fissile Material Report 2007 (Princeton, NJ: Program on Science and Global Security, 2007), http://www.fissilematerials.org/ipfm/site_down/gfmr07.pdf; Eichi Katahara, ‘Japan's Plutonium Policy: Consequences for Non Proliferation’, The Non-Proliferation Review, vol. 5, no. 1, Autumn 1997, p. 59.

‘Japan Can Be a Nuclear Power: Ozawa’, Japan Times Online, 7 April 2002, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20020407a1.html.

‘Non-nuclear Policy To Stay As Is: Koizumi’, ibid., 13 June 2002, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20020613a6.html.

Terumasa Nakanishi, ‘Nihon Kaku Buso e no Ketsudan’, Shokun, August 2003, pp. 22–33; Terumasa Nakanishi, ‘Nuclear Weapons for Japan’, Japan Echo, vol. 30, no. 5, October 2003, pp. 48–54; Terumasa Nakanishi (ed.), Nihon Kaku Buso no Ronten: Kokka Sonritsu no Kiki Ikinuku Michi (Tokyo: PHP Kenkyusho, 2006); Hajime Izumi and Katsuhisa Furukawa, ‘Not Going Nuclear: Japan's Response to North Korea's Nuclear Test’, Arms Control Today, vol. 37, no. 6, June 2007, http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2007_06/CoverStory.

IIPS, 21seiki no Nihon no Kokkazo ni Tsuite, 5 September 2006, http://www.iips.org/kokkazouh.pdf; IIPS, Sanko Hosoku Setsumei, 5 September 2006, http://www.iips.org/kokkazoua.pdf.

Shigeru Ishiba, ‘Koshi Ishiba Maeboeichokan’, in Buntaro Kuroi (ed.), Nihon no Boei Nanatsu no Ronten (Tokyo: Takarajimasha, 2005), pp. 51–2; Mike M. Mochizuki, ‘Japan Tests the Nuclear Taboo’, Non-Proliferation Review, vol. 14, no. 2, July 2007, p. 318; Jun Sakurada, ‘The Folly of Calls for Nuclear Armament’, Japan Echo, vol. 30, no. 4, August 2003, pp. 42–3.

‘Junko Missairu “Tomahoku” Kento o Nukuga-shi Beikoku de Koen’, Asahi Shimbun, 2 May 2007, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0502/TKY200705020251.html; Fukushiro Nukaga, ‘Nihon no Boei Seisaku to Nichibei Kyoryoku’, Paper Presented at Ninth Japan–US Security Strategy Conference, Heritage Foundation, Washington DC, 1 May 2007, http://www.ja-cpce.jp/conf_US2007-nukaga1.pdf, p. 2.

Tokyo Zaidan Seisaku Kenkyubu, Atarashii Nihon no Anzen Hosho Senryaku: Taso Kyochoteki Anzen Hosho, Tokyo, 8 October 2008, pp. 9, 22.

‘Nichibei no Renkei Kyoka o Kakunin Abe Shusho, Raisu Chokan to Kaidan’, Asahi Shimbun, 19 October 2006, http://www.asahi.com/special/nuclear/TKY200610190232.html.

Ryuichi Teshima, ‘Amerika wa Kaku no Kasa o Kakuyaku Shita: Gaimu Daijin Dokusen Intabyu’, Chuo Koron, December 2006, p. 55.

‘National Security Debate Mushrooming Since Oct 9’, Japan Times Online, 25 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nn20061125a2.html.

Emma Chanlett-Avery and Mary Beth Nikitin, Japan's Nuclear Future: Policy Debate, Prospects and US Interests, CRS Report for Congress, 9 May 2008, Washington DC, p. 8; Shigeru Ishiba, Kokubo (Tokyo: Shinshosha, 2005), p. 145; Mochizuki, ‘Japan Tests the Nuclear Taboo’, p. 309.

‘Talk of Going Nuclear Irks Opposition’, Japan Times, 3 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061103a7.html.

‘Aso Should Be Axed for Nuke Comments’, ibid., 10 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061110a6.html.

‘LDP, Komeito Officials Seek To Rein in Nuke Talk’, ibid., 6 November 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061106a1.html.

‘A-bombings “Couldn't Be Helped”: Kyuma’, ibid., 1 July 2007, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070701a1.html.

Matake Kamiya, ‘Nuclear Japan: Oxymoron or Coming Soon?’, Washington Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 1, Winter 2002–2003, p. 66; Mochizuki, ‘Japan Tests the Nuclear Taboo’, p. 307.

Jeffrey W. Thompson and Benjamin L. Self, ‘Nuclear Energy, Space Launch Vehicles and Advanced Technology: Japan's Prospects for Nuclear Breakout’, in Benjamin L. Self and Jeffrey W. Thompson (eds), Japan's Nuclear Option: Security, Politics and Policy in the 21st Century (Washington DC: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2003), pp. 162–6; Kensuke Ebata, ‘Kaku ni Muchi na Nihonjin ni Okuru Kiso Chishiki’, Chuo Koron, December 2006, pp. 49–51.

Shinichi Kitaoka, ‘Kita no Kaku o Yokushi Suru Tame no Ttsutsu no Sentakushi’, ibid., December 2006, pp. 39–40.

Brad Glosserman, ‘Straight Talk about Japan's Nuclear Option’, PacNet Newsletter, 11 October 2006, http://www.csis.org/component/option,com_csis_pubs/task,view/id,3532/type,3.

Izumi and Furukawa, ‘Not Going Nuclear’.

Terumasa Nakanishi, ‘Nihon Kaku Buso e no Ketsudan’, Shokun, August 2003, p. 31; Ebata, ‘Kaku ni Muchi na Nihonjin ni Okuru Kiso Chishiki’, pp. 48–9.

This type of strategy was advocated by Takuya Kubo, the director of the Defense Policy Bureau of the JDA in the 1970s and a key framer of the 1976 NDPO. Kubo argued: ‘If Japan increases its peaceful nuclear capability in such a way as to enable significant nuclear armament at anytime (which is probably already the case), the United States, fearing the impact on instability brought about by nuclear proliferation, would seek to maintain its nuclear guarantee to Japan’. Takuya Kubo, Boeiryoku Seibi no Kangatekata (KB Kojin Ronbun), Detabesu Sekai to Nihon, Sengo Nihon Seiji-Kokusai Kankei Detabesu, 29 February 2001, http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/∼worldjpn/documents/texts/JPSC/19710220.O1J.html. For a similar view, see Izumi and Furukawa, ‘Not Going Nuclear: Japan's Response to North Korea's Nuclear Test’.

Tomohito Shinoda, ‘Taigai Seisaku Kettei no Akuta Toshite no Ozawa Ichiro’, in Kohei Hashimoto (ed.), Nihon Gaiko Seisaku Kettei Yoin (Tokyo: PHP Kenkyujo, 1999), p. 41.

Yoshitaka Sasaki, Umi o Wataru Jietai (Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho, 1992), pp. 13–17; Nobumasa Tanaka, Kempo Kyujo no Sengoshi (Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho, 2005), p. 135; Akihiko Tanaka, ‘The Domestic Context: Japanese Politics and UN Peacekeeping’, in Selig S. Harrison and Masashi Nishihara (eds), UN Peacekeeping: Japanese and American Perspectives (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1995), pp. 93–4.

Shigenobu Tamura, Kempo to Anzen Hosho (Tokyo: Nansosha, 1993), pp. 101–35.

‘Press Conference by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi: The Basic Plan Regarding the Measures Based on the Law Concerning the Special Measures on Humanitarian and Reconstruction Assistance in Iraq’, 9 December 2003, http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/koizumispeech/2003/12/09press_e.html.

‘Hokyuchu, Beikansen ga Kogeki Uketara, “Kobetsu Jieiken de Osen”‘, Asahi Shimbun, 18 October 2008, p. 4.; Michael Auslin and Christopher Griffin, Securing Freedom: The US–Japan Alliance in a New Era (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 2008), p. 25, http://www.aei.org/docLib/20081118_SecuringFreedom.pdf.

‘Statement of the Chief Cabinet Secretary of Japan on the Cabinet Decision “On the Introduction of Ballistic Missile Defense System and Other Measures”‘, Ministry of Defense of Japan, Defense of Japan 2007 (Tokyo: Intergroup, 2007), p. 500.

Satoshi Morimoto and Sugio Takahashi, ‘BMD to Nihon no Boei Seisaku’, in Satoshi Morimoto (ed.), Misairu Boei: Atarashii Kokusai Anzen Hosho no Kozu (Tokyo: Nihon Kokusai Mondai Kenkyujo, 2002), pp. 308–9.

‘Kyuma Chokan Kaiken Gaiyo’, 21 November 2006, Ministry of Defense of Japan, pp. 1–3, http://www.mod.go.jp/j/kisha/2006/11/21.pdf; ‘Takoku e Mukau Missairu Yogeki “Jissai ni wa Muri” Kyuma Chokan’, Asahi Shimbun, 21 November 2006, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/1121/002.html.

‘US Calls On Japan To Shield It From Missiles’.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Shomen Kara Giron o: Bei Hyoteki no Missairu Yogeki Kenkyu’, Yomiuri Shimbun, 24 November 2006, p. 11.

Asahi Shimbun Yukan, 5 October 2001, p. 17.

Shugiin Kempo Chosakai, Shugiin Kempo Chosakai Hokokusho, April 2005, http://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/html/index_kenpou.htm, pp. 301–306; ‘Shugiin Kempo Chosa Saishu Hokoku’ Yomiuri Shimbun, 16 April 2005, p. 13.

Sangiin Kempo Chosakai, Nipponkoku Kempo ni Kansuru Chosa Hokokusho, April 2005, http://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/kenpou/houkokusyo/pdf/honhoukoku.pdf, pp. 66–102.

Defense Policy Studies Subcommittee, National Defense Division, Policy Research Council, Liberal Democratic Party, Recommendations on Japan's New Defense Policy –Towards a Safer and More Secure Japan and the World, 30 March 2004, pp. 8–9, http://www.jimin.jp/jimin/seisaku/2004/seisaku-006.html.

Jiyu Minshuto, Shinkempo Soan, 22 Novmember 2005, pp. 2, 4–5. http://www.jimin.jp/jimin/shin_kenpou/shiryou/pdf/051122_a.pdf.

‘Jimin Shinkempo Kiso Yoko’, Asahi Shimbun, 5 April 2005, p. 1.

‘Jieitai o Do Suru Kanzen Shimureshon’, AERA, 5 August 2004, p. 19.

Richard J. Samuels, Politics, Security Policy and Japan's Cabinet Legislation Bureau, Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper No. 99, March 2004, pp. 7–12.

Patrick Köllner, ‘Factionalism in Japanese Political Parties Revisited or How Do Factions in the LDP and DPJ Differ’, Japan Forum, vol. 16, no. 1, 2004, pp. 96–9.

‘Minshu Anzen Hosho no Kabe’, Asahi Shimbun, 4 August 2004, p. 4.

‘DPJ Set To Submit Own Proposals on Constitution’, Japan Times Online, 14 January 2004, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/member.html?appURL=nn20040114a1.html.

‘Minshu Riberarusei Kesshu’, Asahi Shimbun, 8 February 2006, p. 4.

Katsuya Okada, ‘Atarashii Nihon to 21seiki no Nichibei Kankei’, 29 July 2004, http://www.dpj.or.jp/seisaku/unei/BOX_UN0178.html.

‘Maehara Backs Changing War- Renouncing Article 9’, Japan Times Online, 18 October 2005, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/getarticle.pl5?nn20051018a6.htm.

‘Minshu Riberarusei Kesshu’, p. 4.

Minshuto Kempo Chosakai, Minshuto Kempo Teigen, 31 October 2005, pp. 15–16.

Shinzo Abe, Utsukushii Kuni E (Tokyo: Bunshun Shinsho, 2006), pp. 121–32; ‘Hoshu Saikikochiku Direnma’, Asahi Shimbun, 29 August 2006, p. 4.

‘Jimin “Taiko wa Sakusei Kanno”: Kaiken Genan Shingi no Toketsu Kikan’, ibid., 27 April 2007, p. 1.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Kenkyu, Getsunai ni mo Yushikisha Kaigi Secchi’, Nihon Keizai Shimbun Yukan, 5 April 2007, p. 2.

‘Missairu Boeo, Kako no Kanbo Chokan Danwa Minaoshi o Shisa Shiozakishi’, Asahi Shimbun, 20 November 2006, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/1120/011.html; ‘Missile Shield Policy May Be Reviewed’, Japan Times Online, 21 November 2006, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20061121a1.html.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Kondankai Menbā: Sekkyokuha Zurari Shusho Yori’, Asahi Shimbun, 26 April 2007, p. 4.

Anzen Hosho no Ho-teki Kiban no Saikochiku ni Kansuru Kondankai, Anzen Hosho no Ho-teki Kiban no Saikochiku ni Kansuru Kondankai Hokokusho, 24 June 2008, http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/anzenhosyou/houkokusho.pdf, pp. 9–10.

Ibid., pp. 11–12, 22.

Ibid., pp. 13–16.

Ibid., p. 23.

For the full deliberations of the panel, see Anzen Hosho no Ho-teki Kiban no Saikochiku ni Kansuru Kondankai, http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/anzenhosyou/index.html.

Kokumin Tohyo Hoan Shuin Tsuka Mokuzen Seikyoku ni', Asahi Shimbun, 10 April 2008, p. 2.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Kondankai Menbā: Sekkyokuha Zurari Shusho Yori’, ibid., 26 April 2007, p. 4; ‘Ota Says No Way to “Collective Self-Defense”‘, Japan Times, 3 May 2007, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20070503f4.html.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Kenkyu Yamasaki Taku-shira ga Kennen’, Asahi Shimbun, 27 April 2007, p. 4; ‘Shudan-teki Jieiken Kondankai Menbā: Sekkyokuha Zurari Shusho Yori’, ibid., 26 April 2007, p. 4.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken no Rongi Shissoku, Shusho Hiyayaka, Hoseikon Makuhiki’, ibid., 26 June 2008, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0625/TKY200806250006.html.

‘Aso Raises Collective Self-Defense’, Japan Times, 2 October 2008, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20081002f1.html.

‘Shudan-teki Jieiken no Seifu Kenkai, Gaisho, Boeisho “Jurai Dori”‘, Asahi Shimbun, 1 October 2008, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/1001/TKY200809300429.html.

‘Aso Backtracks on Collective Defense’, Japan Times, 5 November 2008, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20081105a3.html.

‘Public Gradually More Accepting of Constitutional Change’, ibid., 4 May 2004, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/nn20040503a3.html.

‘Ryudoka Suru Goken, Kaiken’, Asahi Shimbun, 3 May 2006, p. 1; ‘Kaiken Nijimu Genjitsu Shiko’, ibid., 3 May 2006, p. 10.

‘Kenpo 60nen Shazetsu no Hyoka wa’, ibid., 27 May 2007, p. 4; ‘78% Say Article 9 Has Helped Keep Japan Peace’, ibid., 3 May 2007, http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200705030084.html.

‘Poll: 66% Want Article 9 To Stay As Is’, ibid., 5 May 2008, http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200805050052.html; Paul Midford, ‘Japan: Balancing Between a Hegemon and Would-Be Hegemon’, unpublished paper presented at Stockholm Workshop on Japanese Political Economy, Stockholm, Sweden, 13–14 June 2008, p. 29.

‘Kenpo Honsha Yoron Chosa’, Yomiuri Shimbun, 4 April 2006, p. 14; ‘Kenpo 60nen Shazetsu no Hyoka wa’, Asahi Shimbun, 27 May 2007, p. 4.

Atarashii Nihon no Anzen Hosho Senryaku: Taso Kyocho-teki Anzen Hosho Senryaku, Tokyo, Tokyo Zaidan, 8 October 2008, p. 25, http://www.tkfd.or.jp/admin/files/081008.pdf.

Boeicho, Manga de Yomu! Boei Hakusho 2005 (Tokyo: Zaidan Hojin Boei Kyosaikai, 2005).

Boeisho, Manga de Wakaru! Nihon no Boei: Dando Missairu kara Nihon o Mamoru (Tokyo: Jiji Gappo, 2007).

Shigeru Ishiba, Kokubo (Tokyo: Shinshosha, 2005); Shigeru Ishiba, Manga de Yomu Kokubo Nyumon (Tokyo: Aoba Shuppan, 2007).

For examples of these publications, see Bessatsu Takarajima, Jieitai vs Chugokugun (Tokyo: Bessatsu Takarajima, 2005); Bessatsu Takarajima, Jieitai Shinsedai Heiki Perfect Book 2008 (Tokyo: Bessatsu Takarajima); and Goto Noriyuki, Sono Toki Jieitai wa Nihon o Mamoreru no Ka? (Tokyo: Futabasha, 2008).

Jiyu Minshuto, Shinkenpo Soan, 28 October 2005, http://www.kenpoukaigi.gr.jp/seitoutou/051028jimin-sinkenpousouan.pdf.

MEXT, Kyoiku Kihon Hoan, Shinkyu Taisho Hyomokuji, http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houan/an/06042712/005.pdf.

McCormack, Client State, p. 150.

Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress, 1985), p. 121.

Paul Midford, ‘Japanese Mass Opinion Toward the War on Terrorism’, in Robert D. Eldridge and Paul Midford (eds), Japanese Public Opinion and the War on Terrorism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 15–18.

Ibid., pp. 32–5.