All Paths Leading to Beijing? Western Europe and Détente in East Asia, 1969–72

Abstract

The early 1970s not only saw a radical improvement of Sino–US relations but also of ties between Beijing and Western Europe. This rapprochement was in many ways closely related to the parallel process of détente between NATO countries and the Eastern Bloc. This article looks at the European dimension of the Chinese opening between 1969 and 1972 and shows how Great Britain, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany had to overcome specific national challenges in order to pierce the bamboo curtain and re-establish Western Europe's political presence in Asia.

Keywords:

• China
• Europe
• détente
• cold war

I thank Professor David Reynolds, Dr Meredith Oyen, Dr Piers Ludlow, and two anonymous reviewers for very helpful comments on earlier versions of this article. I would also like to thank the participants and organisers of the LSE-GWU-USCB Graduate Conference on the Cold War where I presented the main arguments in April 2013.

Notes

1. See for example R. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (London, 2007); F. Logevall and A. Preston, 'Introduction: The Adventurous Journey of Nixon in the World' in F. Logevall and A. Preston (eds), Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (Oxford, 2008), 2–21.

2. See for example J.M. Hanhimäki, 'Détente in Europe, 1962–1975' in M.P. Leffler and O.A. Westad (eds), The Cambridge History of the Cold War (Cambridge, 2010), ii. 198–218.

3. B. Schaefer, ‘Ostpolitik, “Fernostpolitik”, and Sino–Soviet Rivalry: China and the two Germanys’ in C. Fink and B. Schaefer (eds), Ostpolitik, 1969–1974: European and Global Responses (Cambridge, 2009), 130–4; L. Cesari, ‘Les relations franco-chinoises sous la présidence de Georges Pompidou (1969–1974)' in L. Cesari and D. Varaschin (eds), Les relations franco-chinoises au vingtième siècle et leurs antécédents (Arras, 2002), 267; A. Scott, Allies Apart: Heath, Nixon and the Anglo-American Relationship (Basingstoke, 2011), 50–69.

4. Q. Zhai, ‘Seeking a Multipolar World: China and de Gaulle's France' in C. Nuenlist, A. Locher, and G. Martin (eds), Globalizing de Gaulle: International Perspectives on French Foreign Policies, 1958–1969 (Lanham, MD, 2010), 182; B. Krouck, De Gaulle et la Chine: la politique francaise à l'égard de la République Populaire de Chine (Paris, 2012).

5. Qiang Zhai, ‘Multipolar World', 190f.

6. Editorial note, F[oreign] R[elations of the] U[nited] S[tates], 1964–1968, vol. XXX, China, http://1997-2001.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_xxx/01_10.html [Accessed 7 December 2013].

7. Krouck, De Gaulle, 341ff.

8. Telegram No. 07-09, 3 Jan. 1968 [La Courneuve, Archives Diplomatiques La Courneuve], Série (A)sie-(O)céanie, Sous-série Chine, 119QO/747, tel. no. 43-49, 5 Jan. 1968, AO, 119QO/747.

9. See for example Memo ‘Politique intérieure et extérieure de la Chine’, 15 Sep. 1968, AO, 119QO/662, tel. no. 1189, 27 May 1968, AO, 119QO/747.

10. Tel. no. 1104-1105, 16 May 1968, AO, 119QO/747.

11. Tel. no. 748-49, 17 May 1969, AO, 119QO/747.

12. B. Barnouin and C. Yu, Chinese Foreign Policy during the Cultural Revolution (London, 1998), 13.

13. Circular no. 243, 30 May 1969, AO, 119QO/747.

14. ‘Entretien du Sécretaire Général avec l'Ambassadeur de Chine', Paris, 23 May 1969, AO, 119QO/747.

15. ‘Entretien avec le Vice-Président Tung Pi-wu le 22 Mai 1969', AO, 119QO/747.

16. (Untitled list, 1971), AO, 119QO/747.

17. As Ge Fuping points out, Alan Peyrefitte in 1970 led the first Western delegation to visit China since the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. F. Ge, Zhongfa guanxi shihua [A Brief History of Sino–French Relations], (Beijing, 2011), 167.

18. ‘Compte-rendu de l'entretien de M. Mendès France avec M. Chou En-lai', 7 Jan. 1972, AO, 119QO/758.

19. Cesari, ‘Relations’, 267.

20. AO, 119QO/747. ‘Note', 6.2.1969.

21. ‘Procès-verbal de l'entretien confidentiel du 7 juillet 1972 de M. Maurice Schumann avec M. Chi Peng-fei', 18 July 1972, AO, 119QO/760; ‘Compte rendu de l'entretien de M. Mendès France avec M. Chou En-lai le samedi 25 décembre 1971', AO, 119QO/758.

22. ‘Entretien avec le Vice-Président Tung Pi-wu le 22 Mai 1969', AO, 119QO/747; tel. no. 773/781, 23 May 1969; tel. no. 1200-06, 15 July 1969; tel. no. 1207/12, 15 July 1969, AO, 119QO/747.

23. See for example Z. Shen and D. Li, After Leaning to One Side: China and its Allies in the Cold War (Washington, D.C, 2011), 224; M. Li, Mao's China and the Sino–Soviet Split: Ideological Dilemma (London, 2012), 146f.

24. A. Lawrence, China under Communism (London, 1998), 84ff.; Barnouin, Yu, Foreign Policy, 92f.; 98ff.

25. J. Chen, Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, 2001), 238–45.

26. Li, Shen, Leaning to One Side, 226.

27. Memo, ‘Note pour le cabinet du ministre', 3 June 1969; 'Compte-rendu de l'entretien entre le ministre et l'ambassadeur de Chine le 4 Juin 1969 à 16 h. 30', AO, 119QO/747.

28. Tel. no. 2149-56, 29 Oct. 1969, AO, 119QO/747.

29. M. Vaisse, La puissance ou l'influence? La France dans le monde depuis 1958 (Paris, 2009), 554.

30. Tel. no. 2725-27, 20 June 1969, AO, 119QO/761.

31. Li, Shen, Leaning to One Side, 223.

32. Tel. no. 3211/15, 20 July 1971, AO, 119QO/766.

33. http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/sycomore/fiche.asp?num_dept=6263, [Accessed 28 March 2013].

34. Document 90, FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. XVIII, China, 1969–1972.

35. ‘Entretien avec le Vice-Président Tung Pi-wu le 22 Mai 1969', AO, 119QO/747.

36. Tel. no. 2149-56, 29 Oct. 1969. AO, 119QO/747.

37. Cesari, ‘Relations franco-chinoises’.

38. Vaisse, La puissance, 475.

39. K. Fujisaku, ‘La politique asiatique de la France après de Gaulle, 1969–1972’, Relations internationales, cxxxiv (2008), 83–92.

40. Vaisse, Puissance, 554; G.-H. Soutou, ‘Les relations franco-américaines sous Georges Pompidou et Valery Giscard d'Estaing' in R. Lukic (ed), Conflit et coopération dans les relations franco-américaines du général De Gaulle à Nicolas Sarkozy (Québec, 2009), 95.

41. ‘Entretien entre le Secrétaire Général et l'Ambassadeur du Japon', 20 July 1971, AO, 119QO/766.

42. ‘Voyage du Ministre en Chine', 18 July 1972, AO, 119QO/760.

43. S. Tsang, The Cold War's Odd Couple: the Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958 (London, 2006), 18f.; V. Kaufman, Confronting Communism: U.S. and British Policies towards China (Columbia, 2001), 25.

44. K.A. Hamilton, ‘A “Week that Changed the World”: Britain and Nixon's China visit of 21–28 February 1972’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, xv, no. 1 (2004), 117–35; 119.

45. Kaufman, Communism, 96f., 122f., 145f.

46. The Chinese were aware that the British government sought to increase trade with China while at the same time supporting the United States and Taiwan in the UN. They assumed that expanding trade would eventually increase the pressure on London to change its strategy and follow the French example. Memo 'yijiuliusinian xiexing duiying maoyi zhengce de tihui he dui yijiuliuwubnian zuofa de yijian' [Experience of Trade with Britain in 1964 and Statement on Measures for 1965], 13 Feb. 1965, Archives of the Chinese Foreign Ministry, 110-01832-03.

47. See for example G. K.-W. Cheung, Hong Kong's Watershed: the 1967 Riots (Hong Kong, 2009).

48. P. Cradock, Experiences of China (London, 1994), 59–78.

49. For the 1967 crisis see C.-K. Mark, ‘Hostage Diplomacy: Britain, China, and the Politics of Negotiation, 1967–1969', Diplomacy and Statecraft, xx, no. 3 (2009), 473–93.

50. Scott, Allies Apart, 63.

51. P. Ziegler, Edward Heath: the Authorised Biography (London, 2010), 456.

52. W. Wang, Bainian zhongying guanxi [A Century of China-Britain Relations] (Beijing, 2006), 271.

53. ‘China: Annual Review for 1969', 1 Jan. 1970 [Kew, United Kingdom National Archives, Public Record Office ], F[oreign and] C[ommonwealth] O[ffics Records], 21/643.

54. ‘Hong Kong and Sino–British Relations', 3 July 1970, FCO, 21/715.

55. Memo, ‘Prospects for Sino–British Relations', 25 March 1970, FCO, 21/715.

56. J. Young, Twentieth-Century Diplomacy: a Case Study of British Practice, 1963–1976 (Cambridge, 2008), 31.

57. Sir David Trench was the last Governor who came from the colonial service in the classical sense. After his tenure ended in 1971 all governors until 1992 would be career diplomats from the FCO without experience in running a municipal polity. B. Hook, ‘From Repossession to Retrocession: British policy towards Hong Kong 1945-1997' in Li Pang-kwong (ed), Political order and power transition in Hong Kong (Hong Kong, 1997), 13.

58. S. Tsang, Governing Hong Kong: Administrative Officers from the Nineteenth Century to the Handover to China, 1862–1997 (London, 2007), 85f.

59. Hook, ‘Repossession', 15f.

60. ‘Hong Kong Defence Contribution', 6 July 1971, [Kew, United Kingdom National Archives, Public Record Office], Cab[inet Office Records], 148/116.

61. Such conflicts had indeed been foreseen before the merger of the two offices. But since so few territories were affected, the merger went ahead nevertheless. Young, Diplomacy, 37f.

62. ‘Sino–British Relations', 3 July 1970, FCO, 21/715.

63. ‘Sino–British Relations', Hong Kong, 12 June 1970, FCO, 21/715.

64. Ibid.

65. ‘China: Annual Review for 1970', Beijing, 12.1.1971, in R.J. Jarman (ed), China: Political Reports 1961–1970 (Chippenham, 2003), 537–52.

66. Tel. no. 24, 8 Jan. 1971, FCO, 21/831.

67. ‘UK Policy towards China', 16 Dec. 1976, FCO, 21/1498.

68. ‘Defence and Oversea Policy Committee: Minutes of a Meeting held at 10 Downing Street SW1 on Wednesday 16 June 1971', CAB, 14/115, 3.

69. ‘Relations with China: Proposals for Improvement', 7 June 1971, CAB, 14/116.

70. Ibid., 2.

71. Ziegler, Heath, 399.

72. Scott, Allies Apart, 63ff.; V. Kaufmann, ‘“Chirep”: The Anglo-American Dispute over Chinese Representation in the United Nations, 1950–1971', The English Historical Review, cxv, no. 461 (April 2000), 354–77.

73. ‘Brief Defence and Oversea Committee', London, 15 May 1971, FCO, 21/833.

74. ‘Exchange of Ambassadors with China', London, 31 Dec. 1971, FCO, 21/986.

75. Krouck, De Gaulle, 280ff.

76. John Denson to Michael Wilford, 15 Nov. 1971, FCO, 21/820.

77. ‘Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs', 31 Dec. 1971, FCO, 21/986.

78. Tel. no. 469, 25 Feb. 1972, FCO, 21/986.

79. Tel. no. 693, 25.2.1971, FCO, 21/986.

80. Scott, Allies Apart, 54–69.

81. ‘China: Annual Review for 1972', Beijing, 8.1.1973, FCO, 21/1087.

82. ‘Chinas Behandlung der Taiwan-Frage bei der Aufnahme diplomatischer Beziehungen', 20 March 1972, [Berlin,] P[olitisches] A[rchiv des] A[uswärtigen] A[mtes], B 37 660; Harish Kapur, Distant Neighbours: China and Europe (London, 1990), 128.

83. ‘Wirtschaftsjahresbericht', 26 March 1975, PA AA, Z[wischenarchiv], 163.788.

84. Memo, Bonn, 7 Aug. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

85. Schaefer, ‘Fernostpolitik’, 130–4.

86. T. Trampedach, Bonn und Peking: die wechselseitige Einbindung in außenpolitische Strategien 1949–1990 (Hamburg, 1997), 89–96.

87. Schaefer, ‘Fernostpolitik’, 134ff.

88. What may have played a role in bringing about this change in policy was the growing Chinese interest in West Germany's economic strength and its importance within the EEC. Fudan daxue zibenzhuyi yanjiusuo [Research Department for the Study of Sapitalism of Fudan University], Zhanhou xide jingji [The West German Economy after the War], (Shanghai, 1975), 165–82.

89. Records of the board meeting of the East Asia Association, 10 March 1972; Records of the session of the China Committee, Dusseldorf, 4.9.1969, [Cologne, Rheinisch-Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv], O[tto] W[olff papers], 72-1183-2,

90. In 1971, for example, the FRG exports were worth US$138.6 million, compared to the French figure of US$US75 million. ‘Die Wirtschaftsbeziehungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zur VR China', Aug. 1974, PA AA, Z, 100.104.

91. ‘24. Sitzung des Arbeitskreises China des Ost-Ausschusses der Deutschen Wirtschaft', 9 Feb. 1971 [Cologne, Rheinisch-Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv], B[undesverband der] D[eutschen] I[ndustrie], 175-8-3.

92. Audouard to von Carnap, 26 April 1971, BDI, 175-8-3.

93. ‘Les relations commerciales de la République Fédérale d'Allemagne avec la République Populaire de Chine', 16 Aug. 1971, AO, 119QO/812.

94. Memo by Rolf Audouard (untitled), 19 Feb. 1982, BDI, 175-32-2.

95. See for example, T. Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (London, 1993), 28–32, 71.

96. In his memoirs, Adenauer claimed that Khrushchev had told him of his fear of China in 1955. A. Troche, Berlin wird am Mekong verteidigt (Düsseldorf, 2001), 61ff. Mao and Deng Xiaoping later repeated this claim though it is possible that they too simply quoted Adenauer's memoirs which Mao had read with great interest.' ‘Meeting between Chairman Mao Tse-tung and Mr. Heath, Saturday, 25 May 1974, approximately 1.15-2.45pm', FCO, 21/1240; ‘Compte-rendu de l'entretien restreint entre M. Pompidou et M. Chou En-lai’, AO, 752INVA/2166.

97. ‘Vermerk für: Herrn Professor Carstens', 11 April 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

98. S. Wang, Maos Mann in Bonn: vom Journalisten zum Botschafter (Frankfurt, 2002), 75.

99. See for example ‘Schröder aus China zurück: Bonns Ostpolitik besser mit Peking?', Der Spiegel, 7 Aug.1972.

100. Schaefer, ‘Fernostpolitik’, 138.

101. G. Schröder, Mission ohne Auftrag: die Vorbereitung der diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen Bonn und Peking (Bergisch Gladbach, 1988), 37f.

102. ‘Aspekt einer Kompetition mit der DDR in der Dritten Welt', 29 Feb. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

103. See for example ‘Vermerk', 11 April 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

104. Ilse Dorothee Pautsch, ‘“Worte, die wir ausgesprochen haben, gelten wie immer!” Die Aufnahme diplomatischer Beziehungen zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Volksrepublik China 1972' in W. Elz and S. Neitzel (eds), Internationale Beziehungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert: Festschrift für Winfried Baumgart zum 65. Geburtstag (Paderborn, 2003), 470.

105. ‘Verhältnis Bundesrepublik Deutschland/VR China Sachstand', 3.1.1972, PA AA, Z, 100.092.

106. ‘Deutsch-chinesische Beziehungen', Bonn, 26 Sep. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

107. ‘Chinesische Bezeichnung für ‘Bundesrepublik Deutschland', 11 Sep. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

108. ‘Chinesische Bezeichnung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', 12 Sep. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

109. Interview with Helmut Schmidt, Hamburg, 11 Feb. 2013.

110. ‘Telegram No. 1994, 17 Aug. 1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

111. See for example M.E. Sarotte, Dealing with the Devil: East Germany, Détente, and Ostpolitik, 1969–1973 (Chapel Hill, 2001), 74f., 99, 174; S. Fuchs, ‘Dreiecksverhältnisse sind immer kompliziert’: Kissinger, Bahr und die Ostpolitik (Hamburg, 1999), 64ff.; H. Klitzing, ‘To Grin and Bear it: the Nixon Administration and Ostpolitik’, in Schaefer and Fink, Ostpolitik, 80–110.

112. ‘Kissinger in China', 14.9.1972, PA AA, B 37 660.

113. Tel. no. 2290, 18 Aug. 1972; tel. no. 2322, 21 Aug. 1971, PA AA, B 37 660.