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Abstract
From the late 1960s on, light-water designs dominated the market for nuclear reactors in most Western countries. Up to that point in time, many national governments, scientists and industrialists had favoured the rival concepts of heavy-water and graphite-moderated plants. The article focuses on Sweden and West Germany, where central actors only reluctantly gave up their support for domestically developed heavy-water solutions. Studying new archival material and adopting Hobsbawm and Ranger’s concept of the ‘invention of tradition’, the authors analyze how contemporary actors mobilized both the nation and the past when arguing for plants using natural uranium and heavy water. The paper documents how autarkic arguments were superseded by nostalgic sentiments, and how-subsequently-historians have come to perpetuate apologetic parables like ‘Swedish line’ and ‘tradition’, respectively.
Acknowledgement
Fellowship from the Interdisciplinary Working Group for Science, Technology and Security (IANUS) at Darmstadt University of Technology.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Nielsen and Knudsen. “The Troublesome Life of Peaceful Atoms in Denmark,” 91.
2. Ibid., 92.
3. Methodologically, Nielsen and Knudsen primarily rely on Christopher Freemans works, e.g. his Technology Policy and Economic Performance. Cf. also Lundvall. National Systems of Innovation. Originally published in 1992, this classical volume was reissued by Anthem Press in 2010 and published electronically in 2012 by Cambridge University Press.
4. The description of the West-German case is to a large extent based on Hanel. Die Bombe als Option.
5. Austin, How to Do Things with Words.
6. Elzinga et al. “Swedish Grandeur.”
7. Nielsen and Knudsen. “The Troublesome Life of Peaceful Atoms in Denmark,” 92.
8. Hobsbawm and Ranger, The Invention of Tradition.
9. Morgan, “From a Death to a View.”
10. Walker. German National Socialism.
11. Walker. “Eine Waffenschiede?”
12. Müller, Anfänge und Weichenstellungen, 30.
13. Walker, German National Socialism.
14. Müller, Anfänge und Weichenstellungen, 9, 33.
15. Carson, “Nuclear Energy Development in Postwar West Germany,” 239.
16. Fischer, Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse, 87; Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 48–49, Wirtz, Im Umkreis der Physik, 71.
17. Wirtz, Im Umkreis der Physik, 71.
18. Letter (24 June 1954) from Heisenberg to Adenauer. At the Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archives): No. BArch B 136/6099. Letter (13 November 1953) from Müller to Adenauer. Bundesarchiv No. BArch B 136/6107. Cf. Carson, “Nuclear Energy Development in Postwar West Germany,” 251–253; Müller, Anfänge und Weichenstellungen, 109–110, 131–133.
19. Eckert, “Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,” 121–123.
20. Jonter, “Nuclear Weapons Research in Sweden,” 11.
21. Quoted from Agrell. Vetenskapen i försvarets tjänst, 143. All translations from Swedish and German have been made by the authors.
22. Quoted from Ibid.
23. Wittrock and Lindström, De stora programmens tid.
24. For an English summary of the Swedish activities in the 1950s and 60s, see Fjæstad and Jonter, “Between Welfare and Warfare.”
25. Jonter. “Nuclear Weapons Research in Sweden,” 29.
26. Cf. the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/F1a (’Inkommande och utgående [hemliga] handlingar 0001-025 1958’). The so-called ‘War Archives’ are a part of Riksarkivet, the Swedish National Archives.
27. Skogmar, “De nya malmfälten.”
28. Peterson, “Uranutvinning och framställning av högrena uranprodukter,” 196.
29. For the early history of Swedish hydropower, see Jakobsson, Industrialisering av älvar.
30. Quoted from Lindström, Hela nationens tacksamhet, 86.
31. Jonter, “Nuclear Weapons Research in Sweden,” 20.
32. Lindström. Hela nationens tacksamhet, 55.
33. Cf. e.g. “Kortfattad redogörelse för forskningsverksamheten vid FOA2 under budgetåret 1952/53.” Report from FOA, 1 September 1953, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
34. “P.M. angående atomvapenproduktionen i USA och USSR,” report written by Torsten Magnusson, FOA, 11 August 1953, at Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
35. “P.M. angående taktiska atomvapen.” Report by Torsten Magnusson from 18 March 1955, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
36. FOA och kärnvapen, 17.
37. Fjæstad, “Sveriges första kärnreaktor.”
38. For the French program, see Hecht, The Radiance of France.
39. Holmberg, “Isotopseparation.”
40. Concerning the concept of ‘circulation of people, artifacts, and knowledge,’ cf. Hård and Misa, “Modernizing European Cities,” 10.
41. See Njølstad and Wicken, Kunnskap som våpen.
42. Cf. Nilsen, “Noratom og drømmen om en norsk atomindustri.”
43. Cf. Nielsen and Knudsen, “The Troublesome Life of Peaceful Atoms in Denmark,” 93.
44. Svenke. “Kemiforskning inom AB Atomenergi.”
45. Larsson. “Upparbetning av kärnbränsle.”
46. “Om initieringen av en atombomb.” Report by Bo Aler 10 November 1953, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
47. “Kostnadsberäkning av anläggning för isolering av plutonium.” Report by Sten Mogensen and Jan Rydberg from 28 January 1954, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
48. “P.M. angående taktiska atomvapen.” Report by Torsten Magnusson from 18 March 1955, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
49. Ibid.
50. “Komplettering av utredning av den 5 mars 1953 auf betingelserna för framställning av atombomber i Sverige.” Report by Sigvard Eklund from 15 March 1955, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
51. Cf. e.g. Schrafstetter and Twigge, Avoiding Armageddon, Ch. 2.
52. Note by R. Gordon Arneson, consultant to Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in nuclear issues, from March 1953. In: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, eds. “Foreign Relations of the United States” (FRUS) 1952–1954, National Security Affairs, Vol. II, Part 2, Document 77, p. 1126. http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments
53. Ibid.
54. Cf. Zachmann, “Atoms for Peace and Radiation for Safety.”
55. Cf. “Tagesordnung der konstituierenden Sitzung der Deutschen Atomkommission,” 26 January 1956. Document No. BArchB 136/6105 in the Bundeskanzleramt (the German Chancellery) files of the Bundesarchiv (the German Federal Archives).
56. Schelb, Reaktoren und Raketen, 240.
57. Fischer, Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse, 173–175.
58. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 102–103.
59. Ibid., 60, 102–104.
60. Müller, Anfänge und Weichenstellungen, 132; Radkau, “Nationalpolitische Dimensionen der Schwerwasser-Reaktorlinie,” 237.
61. Winnacker and Wirtz, Das unverstandene Wunder.
62. Fischer, Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse, 142–148.
63. Wildi, Der Traum vom eigenen Reaktor.
64. Orig.: “Schnüffelauflagen”, remark by Alexander Wilhelm Menne of Farbwerke Hoechst during a meeting at the Federal Ministry for Atomic Questions on 11 March 1959. Document No. BArch B 138/3546 of the Bundesarchiv (the German Federal Archives).
65. See the minutes of the 10th meeting of the working group ‘Kernreaktoren’, a subgroup of the Atom Commission, on 5 July 1957, p. 8. In the Heinz Maier-Leibnitz papers at the Archive of the Deutsches Museum: NL 111, No. 110.
66. See “Der Karlsruher Forschungsreaktor FR 2,” undated [probably 1957] position paper by Karl Wirtz in the Generallandesarchiv (General State Archives of Baden-Württemberg) in Karlsruhe: 69 KfK, No. 526, p. 2.
67. Radkau, “Der atomare Ursprung der Forschungspolitik des Bundes,” 51.
68. See the minutes of the 8th meeting of the working group ‘Kernreaktoren’, on 25–26 January 1957, p. 5. Archive of the Deutsches Museum: NL 111, No. 110. Cf. also Cartellieri, Taschenbuch für Atomfragen, 78–80; Radkau, “Nationalpolitische Dimensionen der Schwerwasser-Reaktorlinie,” 233.
69. Fjæstad, “Fast Breeder Reactors in Sweden.”
70. Fjæstad, Visionen om outtömlig energi.
71. Cf. Kollert, Atomtechnik als Instrument westdeutscher Nachkriegs-Außenpolitik, 29; Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 58, 66.
72. “Betrifft Atomkraftwerk”, letter from Carl Knott and Wolfgang Finkelnburg to Heinrich Schöller of RWE from 23 October 1956. No. 3 of Historisches Konzernarchiv RWE (the Corporate Historical Archives of the RWE).
73. Report (1965) from the KBB Managing Director Walther Schnurr in the Generallandesarchiv (General State Archives of Baden-Württemberg) in Karlsruhe: 69 KfK No. 552.
74. Letter (20 February 1959) from Finkelnburg to Schnurr at the Ministry for Atomic Questions. At the Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archives): No. BArch B 138/745. Cf. Kollert, “Atomtechnik als Instrument,” 45.
75. Internal memorandum (16 March 1960) from the Atomic Ministry. At the Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archives): No. BArch B 138/301.
76. Concerning the physics behind this process, see Schelb, Reaktoren und Raketen.
77. Press release from the Ministry for Atomic Questions (19 July 1961). At the Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archives): No. BArch B 138/303.
78. Müller, Auf der Suche nach dem Erfolg, 549.
79. See the minutes of the 24th meeting of the working group “Brenn- und Baustoffe für Kernreaktoren,” a subgroup of the Atom Commission, on 8 December 1960, 2.
80. Müller, Auf der Suche nach dem Erfolg, 549–555.
81. “Bericht über die Bedeutung des Siemens-Mehrzweck-Reaktors für die deutsche Kernenergie-Entwicklung” by Wolfgang Finkelnburg (Siemens-Schuckertwerke); Annex to the minutes of the 12th meeting of the Fachkommission III on 1 February 1960, 3; in: BArch B 138/301.
82. Müller, Auf der Suche nach dem Erfolg, 264, 442–443, 553–555.
83. Bupp and Derian, The Failed Promise of Nuclear Power.
84. Minutes from the meeting of the RWE board of directors held 11 July 1962. Historisches Konzernarchiv RWE (the Corporate Historical Archives of the RWE), No. A 1/18.
85. Cf. e.g. Fjæstad and Jonter, “Between Welfare and Warfare.”
86. Kaijser, “Redirecting Power,” 446.
87. Cf. Hård and Jamison, Hubris and Hybrids, Ch. 1.
88. Bupp and Derian, The Failed Promise of Nuclear Power; Anshelm, Mellan frälsning och domedag.
89. Glete, ASEA under hundra år, Section 4.6.
90. Cf. Lindström, Hela nationens tacksamhet, Ch. 6.
91. Fridlund, Den gemensamma utvecklingen.
92. Atomenergien, 94.
93. Ibid., 43.
94. Ibid., 45.
95. Ibid., 71.
96. Glete, ASEA under hundra år, 303.
97. Kaijser, “Redirecting Power,” 446–450.
98. Sköld, Svenska atomvapen?
99. Ahlmark, Den svenska atomvapendebatten, 16.
100. Neutralitet, Försvar, Atomvapen, 113.
101. Cf. note 6 above.
102. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 57.
103. Radkau, “Nationalpolitische Dimensionen der Schwerwasser-Reaktorlinie,” 237; Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 48–49.
104. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 56.
105. Jonter, “Nuclear Weapons Research,” 11.
106. Agrell, Vetenskapen i försvarets tjänst, 154.
107. Lundgren, Energipolitik i Sverige, 33–34.
108. Ohrlander, Blågul atom, 16. ‘Blue-yellow’ refers to the colours of the Swedish flag and is shorthand for ‘domestic’ or ‘national’; the concept has a definite nationalistic slant to it.
109. Wittrock and Lindström, De stora programmens tid, 79.
110. Cf. e.g. Part 7 of Jasanoff, Handbook of Science and Technology Studies.
111. Joerges, “Do Politics Have Artefacts?”
112. Aler, “Kärnkraft och kärnvapen,” 148.
113. Webster’s, 832–833.
114. Atomenergien, 93.
115. Ibid., 71.
116. Lindström, Hela nationens tacksamhet, 143.
117. All quotations in this paragraph come from: “Förutsättningar för anskaffning av atomvapen.” Manuscript for a speech by Torsten Magnusson on 1 March 1956, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
118. “Komplettering av utredning av den 5 mars 1953 auf betingelserna för framställning av atombomber i Sverige.” Report by Sigvard Eklund from 15 March 1955, at the Swedish Krigsarkivet: No. 0234/A/001:H/Ö4 (“Äldre dokument om kärnvapenforskningen”).
119. Jonter, “Nuclear Weapons Research in Sweden,” 19–20.
120. Cf. tidningar.kb.se (retrieved 19 August 2015).
121. Fjæstad, Visionen om outtömlig energi, 48.
122. Kaijser, “Redirecting Power,” 443.
123. Lindström, Hela nationens tacksamhet, 11.
124. Wieland, Neue Technik auf alten Pfaden, 98–100.
125. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 56.
126. Ibid., 57.
127. Radkau, Der atomare Ursprung der Forschungspolitik des Bundes, 56.
128. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 39.
129. Wieland, Neue Technik auf alten Pfaden, 98.
130. Müller, Anfänge und Weichenstellungen, 229.
131. Hanel, Die Bombe als Option, 95, 246–248; Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 37, 130.
132. According to an online search by tidningar.kb.se (19 August 2015).
133. “Särskilt yttrande av professor T. Gustafson,” 138. This reprinted document is a special remark to a position paper delivered by the Delegation for Atomic Energy Questions to the Swedish government on 15 November 1961 (“Yttrande av delgationen för atomenergifrågor till Kungl. Maj:t 15.11.1961 över vattenfallsstyrelsens of AB Atomenergis petita för budgetåret 1962/63”).
134. Cf. Hobsbawm, “Mass-Producing Tradition,” 273–278.
135. Hobsbawm, “Introduction,” 1.
136. Wirtz, Im Umkreis der Physik, 98.
137. Winnacker and Wirtz, Das unverstandene Wunder, 243.