Small nation, big ships winter navigation and technological nationalism in a peripheral country, 1878–1978

Abstract

Finland is the only country in the world where all ports freeze over during a typical winter. Over the century 1878–1978, Finland developed a winter-seafaring system that broke the winter isolation and eliminated seasonal variation in shipping. By using diverse archival sources, we deconstruct the dominant narrative of Finnish winter seafaring through which national as well as technological development is often presented as natural, inevitable and straightforward. We reinterpret the Finnish winter navigation system as a tangible, historical experience and show that technological solutions in this domain cannot be understood outside the context of a decades-long process of nation-building. Finally, we argue that winter navigation became a central imaginary for Finland as a western, industrial and modern nation. As such, the Finnish winter-seafaring system presents a case of technological nationalism in which a small, peripheral country sought to integrate itself into a modern international order.

Keywords:

• Nationalism
• Finland
• winter seafaring
• icebreakers
• technology transfer
• large technological systems

Notes

1. Laurell, Höyrymurtajien aika, 381; Laurell, Riimala, and Sandbacka, Through Ice and Snow, [2], 64; Pohjanpalo, 100 Vuotta Suomen Talvimerenkulkua, 366, [4]; Turunen and Partanen, Raakaa voimaa, 198; Matala, “Läpi kylmän sodan ja jään,” 25; and Kaukiainen, Ulos maailmaan!, 585. Finland as an island was also the title of the 2017 Maritime History symposium celebrating 100 years of Finnish independence and held at the Finnish Maritime Museum.

2. In this article we will not contest the commonly shared and internationally recognised notion that Finland is presently a modern. The close connection between nation building and technological modernization has been contested in research. As Finnish national identity started to take form in the middle of the nineteenth century, many of the Fennoman leaders feared that further industrialization would increase foreign influence in Finland and ruin the genuine agrarian culture thought to represent the original ‘Finnish nation’. For example, Karl-Erik Michelsen has argued that Finland’s technological modernization should not be seen as a national project but rather as a private industrial enterprise motivated by attempts to improve its social status and welfare. (Michelsen, Viides sääty, 81–3.)

3. Russell, “Steamship Nationalism,” 313–34.

4. Tekes – the Finnish Funding Agency for Innovation teamed up with the Dudesons group of daredevils in 2017 for an icebreaker themed PR campaign with the following introduction: ‘It takes courage to be a Finn. Finns are brave, ambitious and dare to do things differently. Finns are well-educated professionals with high productivity. Just take a look at these examples. Did you already know Finland is the Coolest Innovation Hub in Europe? If not now you see it.’ https://www.tekes.fi/en/programmes-and-services/campaigns/dudesons/, accessed 8 May 2017.

5. Fridlund, “De nationalistiska systemen,” 77–103. National technology projects often mergers national goals with economic and technical interests. In this way, it come near to the concept of ‘physical patriotism’ Sverker Sörling has used to describe the role of Swedish natural resources as the base for national identity building in the international context. ‘Fysisk patriotism’. Sörlin, Framtidslandet.

6. Josephson, The Conquest of the Russian Arctic; Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus; and Fritzsche, A Nation of Fliers.

7. Hecht and Allen, “Introduction”; and Clayton, “SCOT: does it answer?” 351–60; Technological nationalism in a small country is usually examined from the point of view of technology transfer and self-reliant technological development, and evaluated in terms of how well such a country succeeds in adopting foreign technologies and retaining technological autonomy. Myllyntaus, Electrifying Finland; and Michelsen, Valtio, teknologia, tutkimus.

8. Hughes, American Genesis, 381–442; Hughes, “The Seamless Web,” 281–92; and Hughes, “The Evolution of Large Technological Systems,” 51.

9. Hecht, The Radiance of France, 28–31; and Hecht, “Planning a Technological Nation,” 134–41.

10. Merenkulkuhallitus.

11. Kauppa- ja teollisuusministeriö.

12. Nationalistic movement known in Finnish as fennomania or fennomaaninen liike.

13. Pulkkinen, “One Language, One Mind,” 118–37; the role of business history in nation-building in Finland has been argued by Markku Kuisma, for example Kuisma, Valta ja vaikutukset, 148–50. Further on nation building and symbolism in Finnish history see Klinge, The Finnish Tradition; economic history see Hjerppe, Finland’s Trade and Policy in the 20th Century; political history Jussila, Hentilä, and Nevakivi, From Grand Duchy to Modern State.

14. Finnish national poet J. L. Runeberg (1804–1877): “Vi Europas Förpost mot naturen/Mellan isar är vår lager skuren/Och vårt bröd vi ryckt ur is och snö.” Citation in Ramsay, Jääsaarron murtajat, 441. All translations are by the authors unless otherwise noted.

15. This has been widely discussed among shipbuilding historians, for example see Buxton, “The Development of the Merchant Ship 1880–1990,” 71–82.

16. The paddle-steamer ‘City Ice Boat no 1’ (1837), operated in Delaware river, Philadelphia and is considered the first special purpose icebreaking vessel. The Russian ‘Pilot’(1864) was the first modern-type icebreaker with a steam-powered propeller tug. The ‘Eisbrecher No. 1’ (1871) assisted trade in the river Elbe to and from Hamburg. Ostersehlte, “Die geschichte des eisbrecherwesens im überlick,” 109–16.

17. Häkkinen, 1860-luvun suuret nälkävuodet, 5.

18. See Figure 1.

19. Laurell et al., Through Ice and Snow, 5; and Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta, 61–2.

20. Pihkala, Suomen Ulkomaankauppa 1860–1917; Fellman, “Growth and Investment,” 144; Kuisma, Metsäteollisuuden maa, 24; Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta, 91–3; and Laurell et al., Through Ice and Snow, 5.

21. This happened concurrently on the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Atlantic coastal hubs in North America, and on the Baltic in Europe from the 1830s onwards. The understanding of the trans-Atlantic transfer of winter seafaring technology remains lacking, which may be explained by Great Britain’s dominant position in late nineteenth century shipbuilding. Palmén, “Om isbrytareångfartyg och vintersjöfart,” 3–19.

22. Zetterberg and Linnamäki, Yhteisellä matkalla, 543.

23. “Hos alla nutidens nationer gör sig nödwändigheten af ändamål[d]enliga kommunikationsanstelter gällande allt mer och mer, och en nation, som så nyss börjat lefwa som den finska, en nation, hwars nywaknade sjelfförtroende tydes berättiga till goda förhoppningar, skall wäl ide låta af misströstan och modlöshet affträda sig från de ögonblidliga uppoffringar, hwarmed den måste löpa sin framtida storhet.” Article “Tankar om Finland blifvande jernwägar” in Helsingfors Tidningar 17.12.1861.

24. Laurell, Höyrymurtajien aika, 17.

25. Palmén, “Om isbrytareångfartyg och vintersjöfart,” 30–3.

26. Ramsay, Jääsaarron murtajat, [1], 70–2, 475.

27. “[U]tan wälstånd hafwa wi ingen framtid och utan kommunikationer ernå wi intet wälstånd”, in Helsingfors Tidningar 17.12.1861.

28. Palmén, “Om isbrytareångfartyg och vintersjöfart,” 48–9; and Laati, Suomen luotsi- ja majakkalaitoksen historia 1808–1946, 197–8.

29. Palmén, “Om isbrytareångfartyg och vintersjöfart,” 53.

30. K.A. Tawastjerna quoted in Ramsay, Jääsaarron Murtajat, 142.

31. Bergsunds Mekaniska Verkstadt in Stockholm, Sweden.

32. Palmén, “Om isbrytareångfartyg och vintersjöfart,” 53–7; also Laurell, “Jäänmurtajat ja talviliikenne,” 185–6; and Laurell et al., Through Ice and Snow, 19.

33. Uusi Suometar 3.4.1890; Oulun Ilmoituslehti no 37 10.5.1890; Sanomia Turusta no 96 26.4.1890; Nya Pressen no 91A. 4.4.1890.

34. Ramsay, Jääsaarron Murtajat, 153; Nya pressen 3.4.1890; Savo-Karjala 9.4.1890 no 40; Päivälehti 3.4.1890.

35. Komitébetänkande 1896 no 1, Bilaga III, 153.

36. Between 1890 and 1895 Finnish butter export increased from 4094 t to 11,330 t and the share of Hanko as the butter export port increased from 51 to 92%. Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta, 114.

37. “Murtaja tulee taistelemaan talven kanssa ja voittamaan sen vallan. Sentähden se onkin meidän ystävä”. Päivälehti 16.12.1890.

38. Founded in 1880 Teknologiska föreningen i Finland (TFiF) was comprised of predominantly Swedish speaking engineers with substantial international experience. Like similar associations in the UK and US, it published a long-running series of proceedings TFiF Förhandlingar, where Finnish shipbuilders found a venue for publishing papers on icebreaking technology prior to 1950s.

39. He was the son of the Finnish national poet quoted at the start of the chapter and the designer of the ‘Expressen’.

40. Bonsdorff had experience from Danish, Swedish and Russian shipyards, while Eager had been born in Plymouth, England and ended up as constructor of the leading Finnish shipyard, Crichton after a stint in Russia. For both, see biographical notes in folder 21, Henrik Ramsay private archive, FNA; Runeberg had worked in the UK and France, see Holmström, “Banbrytaren inom vintersjöfarten,” 8–24.

41. Palmén was initially published in the TFiF Förhandlingar but also soon as a separate print as well; Runeberg, “Om möjligheten af en vinternavigation till S:t Petersburg,” 68–72.

42. Bonsdorff’s description of his trip, see Komitébetänkande 1896 no 1, Bilaga II, 122–38.

43. Johnson, “Development of Ice-breaking Vessels for the U.S. Coast Guard,” 127; correspondence with Hudson River Navigation Corporation, folder 21, Henrik Ramsay private archive, FNA.

44. For example, see Warren, Armstrongs of Elswick.

45. Delivered in 1897 and named after the mythical wealth-creating machine from the Finnish national romantic epic Kalevala by Elias Lönnrot.

46. Uusi Suometar 9.3.1888; Savo-Karjala 9.4.1890; Suomi 9.4.1890.

47. Michelsen and Kuisma, “Nationalism and Industrial Development in Finland,” 346.

48. Report Skeppsbyggerikomitén (1912) s. 71–9, 95–6; Krogius at the first Finnish maritime cluster congress in 1925 “Suomen ensimmäinen Merenkulku- ja Laivanrakennuskongressi,” 9–10 in Suomen merenkulku ja laivanrakennusteollisuus; and Laurell et al., Through Ice and Snow, 35.

49. Trade and industry minister Aukusti Aho in a meeting with leading industrialists, shipping companies and maritime specialists, 28 February 1923, Ea:34, Incoming documents, Ministry of Trade and Industry, FNA.

50. For an example on the world leader, Britain, see Johnman and Murphy, British Shipbuilding and the State since 1918.

51. Finska Ångfarts Aktiebolaget or increasingly in Finnish Suomen Höyrylaiva Osakeyhtiö. For reasons of brevity we will use the acronym FÅA.

52. Also the author of Jääsaarron murtajat.

53. Suviranta, Suomen höyrylaiva osakeyhtiö, 1883–1958, 75, 81–2, 87–9; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, Navigare Necesse, 110–1.

54. Fellman, ”Growth and Investment,” 155–7; Heikkinen, Paperia Maailmalle – Suomen paperitehtaitten yhdistys Finnpap 1918–1996, 33, 40–1, 59–4; and Ramsay, Jääsaarron Murtajat, 308.

55. Печенга, Pechenga.

56. Linhammar.

57. The icebreaker ‘Tarmo’ survives as a museum ship in the Maritime Museum of Finland, where this story is still routinely repeated to thousands of visitors yearly. The ship still draws media attention, and while working at the museum centre, one of the authors was interviewed by Finnish national TV on the history of the ship. See also: Mattila, “Jäänmurtajat Vapaussodassa,” Navigator 5/59; “Vanha kunnon Tarmo in memoriam,” Navigator 9/69; museum leaflet Jäänmurtaja Tarmo: Kantasatama, Kotka.

58. Minutes for the 28 February 1923 meeting at the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ea:34, Saapuneet kirjeasiakirjat, Kauppa- ja teollisuusministeriö, FNA; Johansson had studied naval architecture at Chalmers due to the troubles over conscription in Finland in 1905, see Holmström, “K. Albin Johansson,” 81–5; Karttunen, Pietikäinen, and Suopanki, Uljaksen vanavedessä, 192–3.

59. Notebook titled ‘Hansa’ polemik and other collected papers in folder A97004:040-047, K. Albin Johansson personal archive, FMM.

60. Memoranda regarding the tender, Ea:34, FNA; Finnish cabinet meetings 23 February and 20 March 1923, Ca:51–52 Cabinet minutes III, FNA; MKH directors meetings in 5 May, 1 and 11 June, and 12 December 1926, Ca:17, MKH Archive, FNA; Ramsay, 315; Laurell, 140–2; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, 110; N1973, N5000, FO371/10425, TNA.

61. The minutes and presentations were printed in the booklet Suomen merenkulku ja laivanrakennusteollisuus: muutamia päivänpolttavia kysymyksiä: Turussa helmikuun 20 ja 21 p:nä 1925 pidetyssä merenkulku- ja laivanrakennuskongressissa esitetyt esitelmät, alustukset ja selostus keskusteluista.

62. Suomen merenkulku ja laivanrakennusteollisuus, 12–6.

63. Suomen merenkulku ja laivanrakennusteollisuus, 141–4.

64. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat auki, 56–7.

65. Generally meaning a distinctively Finnish national quality of perseverance and fortitude.

66. Navy motion for a combined icebreaking and submarine tendering ship 25 November 1932, PLM-26 F:87 Secret correspondence, Ship construction department, DoD, FNA; Maritime adminsitration minutes 13 December 1932, 25 March 1933, Ca:28–29, MKH, FNA; MKH memoranda in 1933, Eb:33 incoming correspondence, MKH, FNA; tender to Crichton-Vulcan shipyard 17 January 1933 on the ship with Atlas Diesel and Brown & Boveri specifications, Hc:1, Ship construction department, DoD, FNA; previously unseen tender committee papers in Eb:74 Incoming correspondence, MKH, FNA; “A diesel-electric ice breaker: the ‘Sisu’ a dual-purpose 4,000 s.h.p. triple-screw vessel for the Finnish government,” in The Motor Ship 1939:4; Ramsay, 338–46; Pohjanpalo, 159–62; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, 115–7, 119; Kivikuru, “Sukellusveneiden emälaivan tehtävistä,” Laivastolehti 3/39; Rahola, “Jäänmurtaja Voima ja sen neljä potkuria,” Suomen laivasto 2/1954.

67. After a Norse mythological proto-god, launched in 1933.

68. The Swedish maritime administration invited Finnish colleagues to visit the ship in 1933 and later again in 1936. K. A. Johansson, at least, was among the visitors. “9,000 B.H.P. machinery for a diesel-electric ice-breaker,” in The Motor Ship, January 1933; Liljeblad, “The Swedish Government’s Ice-breaker ‘Ymer’”; and Johnson, “Development of Ice-breaking Vessels for the U.S. Coast Guard”.

69. Ramsay was imprisoned as a war criminal at the time, Niku Kahdeksan tuomittua miestä, 25–7, 181.

70. The title translates as ‘In battle with Baltic ice’.

71. While Ramsay was well versed in ships and shipping, we have concluded that he relied solely on Johansson in matters of icebreaking technology and the two were on very good terms indeed. Original notes and correspondence on the book are retained in Folder 21, Henrik Ramsay private archive. FNA; “Talvimerenkulku oli edellytyksenä – välttämättömänä edellytyksenä – Suomen elinkeinoelämän, niin, jopa sivistyksen edistymiselle”, 78 Ramsay, Jääsaarron Murtajat, 42,78, 147.

72. Jääsalo, Pohjoiset satamat, 277.

73. Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta, describes the 1970s official doctrine with distinct empathy, 349–354: “Jäänmurtajatoiminnan tavoitteena on kaikkien talvisatamien aukipitäminen ympäri vuoden, myös ankarina talvina, jolloin lähes koko Itämeri saattaa olla jäänpeittämä … … [j]äänmurtajalaivastoa joudutaan tämän takia hiukan ylimitoittamaan leutojen talvien olosuhteista katsottuna.”

74. Paavonen, “Special Arrangements for the Soviet Trade in Finland’s Integration Solution,” 153–68; Aunesluoma, Vapaakaupan tiellä, 189–279; and Jensen-Eriksen, Metsäteollisuuden maa 4, 97–146.

75. Jensen-Eriksen, Metsäteollisuuden maa 4, 102–14, 146–7; Aunesluoma, Vapaakaupan tiellä: Suomen kauppa- ja integraatiopolitiikka maailmansodista EU-aikaan, 92–101.

76. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat, 246.

77. Finnish paper producers association to FMA 7 January 1946, FMA director to the Ministry of trade and industry 14 January 1946, and FMA answer to the paper producers 22 January 1946, all in Eb:362, MKH, FNA.

78. Sundman had until 1938 been the navy chief of staff. He was instrumental in bringing naval influences to MKH as the administration director 1938–1945 and as the ministry supervisor from thereafter until 1965. For discussion and sources see Uola, “Sundman, Svante (1895–1969)”; Sundman to the maritime administration 12 February 1946, in Eb:362, MKH, FNA; Letter from the Minister of trade and industry to MKH, 8 August 1952. Eb:414, MKH, FNA; The committee report, Jäänsärkijätoimikunnan mietintö, 37.

79. The ship was named after the 1924 ship lost to reparations. The committee had proposed a new name for this ship, ‘Into,’ meaning enthusiasm, but more conservative attitudes prevailed.

80. Shaft horsepower (shp) is used as the unit of measurement of an icebreakers’ power as various tonnage or displacement measurements are meaningless on such a ship.

81. Johansson fought this new and largely unknown design but the shipyard designers pushed for it and were backed by the MKH director. The Canadian ferry Abegweit launched in 1946 was an influence on the twin bow propeller design. MKH correspondence with various ministries and interest groups regarding the icebreaker issue in 1946, Eb:362 MKH, FNA; planning of the new state icebreaker, Eb:363 MKH, FNA; MKH director Rahola to ministry of trade and industry on the ship design 3 April 1948, Eb:414 MKH, FNA; Designing and cosntructing the ‘Voima’, A97004: 064, 1148–1150 K. A: Johansson papers, FMM; Johansson’s undated letter to Ramsay around 1946–1947, Folder 21, Henrik Ramsay private archive, FNA.

82. Landtman, Minnen från mina år vid Wärtsilä, 293; Haapavaara, Martin Saarikangas, [1], [24], 285; Christian Landtman interviews 21 January 2014 & 9 September 2014; Martin Saarikangas interview 5 February 2014.

83. For example, in 1970s, am acquisition of a Finnish icebreaker to the USCG was widely discussed as a political tool to support Finnish western orientation. Even though the order was never realized, in the related discussion the Finnish icebreakers were presented as a prime example of Finnish technological development; Documents related to the President Urho Kekkonen´s visit to the USA 1975, NSA NCS Europe, Canada, and Ocean Afairs staff. Country File, USSR – Soviet Jewry, 1974, Gerald Ford Library, Ann Arbor, MI. “Sales-Minded Finns giving Ford Dinner on an icebreaker,” New York Times, 31 July 1975.

84. The board was comprised of politician, bureau chiefs and economic specialists. MKH was consulted but not directly part of the research committee, see Tutkimus talviliikenteestä, III-XI, 94–7.

85. This includes war reparations to the Soviet Union, infrastructure rebuilding, relocation of dispossessed population, and economic planning. Heikkilä and Tiihonen, Kriisinselvittäjä.

86. Tutkimus talviliikenteestä, 94–5: “Valtion intressiin tuntuisi siis ehdottomasti kuuluvan puuttua tähänastista aktiivisemmin talviliikenteen hoitoon. Kun periaatteellista vastustusta ei ilmeisesti esiinny eri osapuolten taholta, kysymys lienee lähinnä keinoista, joilla saavutettaisiin koko kansantalouden kannalta paras lopputulos.”

87. The other three (not two as planned) were smaller and meant for the extensive archipelago.

88. Tamminen, “Kulkulaitoksemme talviliikenne tutkimuksen valossa,” Navigator 2/1956; Rahola, “Talviliikenteemme kehityksestä ja nykyhetken ongelmista,” Navigator 4–5/1958; on the effects of eliminating seasonal variation see, Bergholm, Tapio “Port Traffic and Structural Change in the Finnish Economy and Transport Network in the Twentieth Century,” 225–38 in International Journal of Maritime History 19:1.

89. Haapala, “The Fate of the Welfare State,” 144–5.

90. Kekkonen, Onko maallamme malttia vaurastua, 128–9; and Mäntylä, Pohjois-Suomea kehittämässä, 319–28.

91. E.g. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat, 67, 126–34, 160–72.

92. Beckman, “Talvimerenkulku ja jäävahingot,” Navigator 1/1972: “Jos jo etukäteen tiedetään, että matkaa johonkin ahtojäävallien takana olevaan satamaan ei voida suorittaa muuten kuin turvautumalla jäänmurtajan hinauksen, ja jos tällöin myös tiedetään että alukselle varmasti tulee suuria jäävahinkoja, ollaan arveluttavan lähellä sitä rajaa, jolloin ei enää voida puhua vakuuttamiskelpoisesta vaarasta”; also Beckman, “Jäävahingot lisääntyneet”, Navigator 12/1971.

93. Fittingly, his surname can be translated as ‘ice wilderness’.

94. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat, 7–14.

95. Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, Navigare necesse, 321.

96. Compare the following reports: Council of transportation systems chaired by Kalervo Tamminen (“Tutkimus talviliikenteestä,” Kulkulaitosneuvoston julkaisuja 1957); Port Committee chaired by Svante Sundman (“Satamakomitean mietintö,” Komiteamietinnöt 1958); Bank of Finland Research center (Kukkonen & Tikkanen, “Jäänmurtajat ja Talviliikenne”); and the articles publishes in Navigator: Niini “Talvimerenkulku on maamme elinehto” (1/67); Johansson, “Talvimerenkulun ongelmat” (5/67); Forsskåhl, “Perämeren talviliikenne” (1/68); Jääsalo, “Suomalaiset jäänmurtajat Itämeren talviliikenteessä” (1/68); Teräs, “Erikoisvaatimukset, jotka talvimerenkulku asettaa satamille” (9/68); Pohjanpalo, “Jäänmurtajat talviliikenteen tukipylväinä” (3/69); Kaste, “Talviliikenteen kehityksestä” (2/69); Beckman, “Jäävaaran vakuuttamisesta” (3/69); Rekola, “Rautatie- ja meriliikenteen yhtymäkohdat Pohjois-Suomessa” (11/69); Becker, “Perämeren merkuljetukset linjaliikenteen näkökulmasta” (11/69); Kaste, “Valtionrautatiet ja talviliikenne” (2/70).

97. “[…] kuinka näennäisesti luotettavien tuntuisilla numeroilla voidaan omia näkökohtia perustella “unohtamalla sievästi” joitakin asiaan vaikuttavia tekijöitä,” article “Talvimerenkulun ongelmat,” in Navigator 1/73.

98. Kukkonen and Tikkanen, “Jäänmurtajat ja Talviliikenne”.

99. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat, 99–101; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, Navigare necesse, 321.

100. Some 20 in total. Small ports have always been seasonal. Port historian Tapio Bergholm to the authors.

101. Kukkonen and Tikkanen, “Jäänmurtajat ja talviliikenne”.

102. Named after the Finnish president Urho Kekkonen but also meaning someone brave or a hero.

103. The share of winter shipping between December and April was in 1930s 18%, in 1950s 21% and in the end of 1970s 40%. Kaukiainen, Ulos maailmaan!, 438; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, Navigare necesse, 235, 320–4.

104. Jääsalo, “Suomalaiset jäänmurtajat Itämeren talviliikenteessä,” in Navigator 1/1968: “Mitä rohkeat yrittävät olivat panneet alulle, se jäi nyt taloudellisesti ja teknillisesti ajattelevien miesten edelleen kehitettäväksi”.

105. The Finnish-Swedish cooperation included conferences on ice research and other joint research projects. Haviskonferens I Stockholmn 3–4.10.1972, Protokoll, Stryrelsen för Vintersjöfartsfoskning, Forskningsrapport nr. 1. 1972; “Talvimerenkulkuun liittyiä ongelmia käsiteltiin Luulajassa,” Navigator 10/1971; “Suomalais-Ruotsalaiset jääluokkasäännöt astuvat voimaan 1.5.1971,” Navigator 4/1971.

106. Jääsalo, Pohjoisen satamat, 58–9.

107. Ojala and Kaukiainen, “Finnish Shipping”; Kaukiainen and Leino-Kaukiainen, Navigare necesse, 326.

108. Pohjanpalo was the leading specialist in maritime traffic, the long serving editor of industry journal Navigator, and a proponent of Ramsay’s ideas, see Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta.

109. Ramsay, Jääsaarron Murtajat, 10; and Pohjanpalo, 100 vuotta.

110. Michelsen and Kuisma, “Nationalism and Industrial Development in Finland,” 343–53.

111. Jensen-Eriksen, “Business, Economic Nationalism and Finnish Foreign Trade during the 19th and 20th Centuries,” 47–9.

112. Michelsen, Valtio, teknologia, tutkimus, 48, 51; and Myllyntaus, “The Finnish Model of Technology Transfer,” 625–43.