The emergence of Baltic Moorkultur: visions of scientific-technological mastery of peatlands in the age of great social change, 1850–1914

ABSTRACT

This article looks at the imaginaries of progress through technology and new activities by tracing the emergence of Baltic Moorkultur in Estonia and Livonia from the 1850s to the early 1910s. Baltic Moorkultur, a set of modern drainage and peat extraction techniques, has been viewed as part of a modernisation process and evolving visions of future, which touched the identity of Baltic German landowners, scientists and entrepreneurs. General reasons for an impetus for the large-scale reclamation of peatlands were the growth of population, economic liberalisation, growing demand for fuels and the fact that the basis of manorial economy gradually crumbled and led to increasing urge to modernise its source of livelihood. Baltic Moorkultur can be thought as a high-tech response of that time to the exploitation of peatlands. This article explains why it became adopted and how it altered the appraisal of environments that had been perceived as suboptimal.

KEYWORDS:

• Peatlands
• peat
• technology
• science
• knowledge transfer
• social identity
• Baltic countries
• nineteenth century

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Tammsaare, “Tõde ja õigus,” 14.

2. Göttlich and Kuntze, “Nutzung,” 386–7, 391–2; Richard, “Torfgewinnung und Torfverwertung,” 414; Gerding, “Vier eeuwen turfwinning,” 343–60; Winchester, “The Harvest of the Hills”; Hassel and Welin, “Velmente Tankar om Landthushållningens Förbättrande i Finland,” 5 §,6 § and 7 §; Brauner, “Tankar och Försök om Åker och Äng,” Introduction; Kalm and Backman, “En Oeconomisk Beskrifning,” 1 §; and Kalm and Wegelius, “Tankar om Nödwändigheten at Utdika och Upodla Kärr och Måssar i Finland,” Introduction.

3. On the status of Estonian and Latvian peatlands, see for instance Pakalne, “Latvian mires and their conservation”; and Orru and Orru, “Sustainable use of Estonian peat reserves,” 87.

4. Special organisations dedicated to the promotion of the reclamation of peatlands and wetlands were established, e.g. in Denmark (Det danske Hedeselskab) in 1866, in Germany (Verein der Moorkultur in Deutschen Reich) in 1883, in Sweden (Svenska mosskulturföreningen) in 1886, in Finland (Suomen Suoviljelysyhdistys/Finska Mosskulturföreningen) in 1894, in Austria (Deutsch-Österreichische Moorverein) in 1895 and in Norway (Det Norske Myrselskap) in 1902.

5. Jasanoff and Kim, “Containing the Atom,” 120.

6. Jasanoff, “Future Imperfect,” 4.

7. Finlay, ”International Science and Local Conditions on the Ground,” 340.

8. Plath, “Heimat,” 59–60; and Wezel, “Introduction: German Community,” 1–2.

9. Lust, “Kiselev’s Reforms Of State Peasants,” 57.

10. Lust, “The Impact of the Baltic Emancipation Reforms on Peasant-Landlord Relations,” 1.

11. Plakans, “Migration, households, and agrarian reform in the Baltic provinces of Russia,” 153–4.

12. Plakans, “Family enterprise in the Baltic estate economy,” 244–6.

13. Baltische Wochenschrift für Landwirtschaft, Gewerbefleiß und Handel, No. 22, 1863, 378. Original German text: “Nach der Entwässerung würde die Vegetationsperiode daselbst früher beginnen; die Nachtfröste würden sich später im Herbste einstellen und nicht, wie jetzt, die sommerlichen Saaten bedrohen. Der ganze Landstrich würde durch die Entwässerung in klimatischer Hinsicht gewissermaßen um ein Bedeutendes nach Süden und nach Westen zu fortgerückt worden sein.”

14. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 14, 1898, 152. Original German text: “Und doch hat es bei uns eine Zeit gegeben, vor 30 oder 35 Jahren, als auch hier eine Moorkulturmanie herrschte…”.

15. On these notions in different European cultural contexts, see, e.g. Hupel, Topographische Nachrichten, 94 and 99; Buffon, “Époques de la nature,” 236–41; and Kalm and Foeder, Tankar Om Den Wärckan Som Et Lands Upodling har på Des Climat, 1 §, 2 §, 3 §, 4 § and 5 §.

16. Hupel, Topographische Nachrichten, 23.

17. Pungas, “Mida inimesed on soodest arvanud?”; and Pungas and others, “Interpreting Estonian mires,” 248.

18. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 22, 1863, 375–9; Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1868, 606–8; Ibid., No. 5 & 6, 1870, 66–74; and Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1873, 528.

19. von Samson, “Die Torfindustrie,” 538–637; Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 22, 1863, 375–9; Ibid., No. 8, 1864, 163–5; Ibid., No. 9, 1867, 138; Ibid., No. 12, 1868, 174; Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1868, 606–8; Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1870, 520–2; and Ibid., No. 32, 1885, 32–3.

20. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 12, 1868, 174.

21. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 41 & 42, 1870, 520–2.

22. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 8, 1864, 163–5; and Ibid., No. 12, 1864, 223–5.

23. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 29, 1865, 484–7; Ibid., No. 35, 1865, 598; Ibid., No. 5 & 6, 1870, 66–74.

24. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 22, 1863, 375–9; Ibid., No. 29, 1865, 484–7; Ibid., No. 43, 1867, 672; Ibid., No. 3, 1868, 35–41; Ibid., No. 12, 1868, 174; Ibid., No. 30, 1868, 439–41; Ibid., No. 5 & 6, 1870, 66–74; and Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1870, 520–2.

25. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 14, 1898, 154–7.

26. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 12, 1868, 174; and Ibid., No. 48, 1871, 665.

27. Finlay, “International Science and Local Conditions on the Ground,” 340.

28. Ibid.

29. See e.g. Engelhardt and Neuschäffer, “Die Livländische Gemeinnützige und Ökonomische Sozietät 1792–1939; Jãrvesoo, “The Role of Tartu University and Riga Polytechnic Institute”; Leimanis, ”The Polytechnical Institute of Riga and Its Role in the Development of Science,” 113–22; and Tankler, “Die Universität Tartu/Dorpat in den Wissenschaftsbeziehungen zwischen Ost und West,” 267–9.

30. Whelan, Adapting to Modernity; Finlay, “International Science and Local Conditions on the Ground.”

31. Finlay, “International Science and Local Conditions on the Ground,” 342.

32. Barbier, Scarcity and Frontiers, 368–94.

33. Goldsmith, Comparative National Balance Sheet, 95–304. The agricultural land share of national wealth (%) in 1913 was 18.7, 13.3, 25.3, 20.1, 10.1, 29.6, 61.5 and 19.2 in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, Russia and United States respectively.

34. Barbier, Scarcity and Frontiers, 663.

35. von Samson, “Die Torfindustrie,” 548. Original German text: “So ist denn die Torfindustrie, wie eingangs angedeutet worden, ein notwendiges und unentbehrliches Glied in der Kette derjenigen Errungenschaften der Neuzeit, welche den Übergang zu höheren von den antiken Welt wesentlich verschiedenen Kulturformen möglich zu machen versprechen, den Übergang von schonungsloser, sorgloser Raubwirtschaft zu humanerer schonender, für die Zukunft sorgender, sie sicherer, für ihre Entwickelung vorarbeitender Kultur.”

36. Baltische Wochenschrift, No., 1885, 433. Original German text: “…daß die schwarzen Diamanten des hiesigen Landes – der Torf – nicht mehr unbenutzt im Schoße der Erde liegen bleiben, sondern zum Nutzen des Ganzen, zum Nutzen der Landwirtschaft, zum Schutz des Waldes, die ihnen gebührende Verwendung finden würden.”

37. On the Dutch fen colonies, see e.g. Gerding, “Vier eeuwen turfwinning.”

38. Göttlich and Kuntze, “Nutzung,” 387; Göttlich and others, “Mire utilisation,” 379–82.

39. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 5 & 6, 1870, 66–74; and Ibid., No. 8 & 9, 1873, 99–103.

40. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 41 & 42, 1870, 520–2; Ibid., No. 41 & 42, 1873, 528; and Ibid., No. 18, 1877, 287–91.

41. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 41 & 42, 1873, 528; Ibid., No. 39, 1874, 484–90; and Ibid., No. 18, 1877, 287–91.

42. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 43 & 44, 1873, 547–51; Ibid., No. 39, 1874, 484–90; Ibid., No. 39, 1875, 475–6; Ibid., No. 7, 1877, 102; Ibid., No. 8, 1877, 114–24; Ibid., No. 12, 1877, 188–9; Ibid., No. 18, 1877, 287–91; Ibid., No. 4, 1879, 32–4; Ibid., No. 7, 1879, 120–1; Ibid., No. 41, 1880, 699; Ibid., No. 12, 1881, 313–6; Ibid., No. 4, 1882, 60–3; Ibid., No. 30, 1882, 545–8; Ibid., No. 31 & 32, 1882, 595; Ibid., No. 40, 1883, 737–44; Ibid., No. 22, 1884, 442–4; Ibid., No. 23, 1884, 459–62; Ibid., No. 34, 1885, 34–5; Ibid., No. 4, 1887, 34; Ibid., No. 11, 1887, 117–22; Ibid., No. 16, 1887, 188; Ibid., No. 43, 1887, 425–7; and Ibid., No. 34, 1890, 381–4.

43. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 39, 1874, 484–90; Ibid., No. 28, 1884, 530–6; and Ibid., No. 38, 1885, 433–5.

44. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 4, 1877, 54; Ibid., No. 24, 1877, 390; and Ibid., No. 42, 1877, 696; No. 48, 1877, 783–4.

45. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 4, 1877, 54; Ibid., No. 24, 1877, 390; and Ibid., No. 42, 1877, 696; No. 48, 1877, 783–4.

46. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 24, 1877, 377–85; and Ibid., No. 24, 1877, 390.

47. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 4, 1882, 60–3; and Ibid., No. 22, 1882, 433; Ibid., No. 31 & 32, 1882, 595.

48. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 11, 1887, 117–22; Ibid., No. 14, 1898, 154–57.

49. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 24 & 25, 1873, 294–302.

50. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 9, 1881, 225–32.

51. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 13 & 14, 1877, 225–26; Ibid., No. 5, 1887, 46–7; Ibid., No. 11, 1887, 117–22; and Ibid., No. 18, 1892, 253–56.

52. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 22, 1881, 497; and Ibid., No. 49, 1881, 996–7.

53. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 39, 1874, 484–90.

54. Sitzungsberichte der Naturforscher-Gesellschaft zu Dorpat in den Jahren.

55. von Samson, “Die Torfindustrie,” 566–88; Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 4, 1877, 54; Ibid., No. 40, 1884, 773–7; Ibid., No. 3, 1885, 22–3; and Ibid., No. 9, 1887, 95–6.

56. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 7, 1879, 119–23; Ibid., No. 6, 1880, 85–91; Ibid., No. 20, 1884, 401–3; Ibid., No. 30, 1884, 591.

57. Bruisch “Nature mistaken,” 11.

58. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 33, 1899, 409. Original German text: “In Petersburg und in Berlin wurde in den letzten Jahren, namentlich im vorigen Winter, eine noch niemals dagewesene Menge Torf zum Heizen verwandt, die Erfolge sind finanziell so befriedigend, daß die Torfbrikettfabrikation sicher einen großen Aufschwung nehmen wird, denn die Produzenten sind vom Erfolge ebenso befriedigt, wie die Konsumenten.”

59. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 8, 1908, 69. Original German text: “Aufforderung zur Gründung eines baltischen Moorvereins.”

60. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 14, 1898, 154–7; Ibid., No. 29, 1900, 317–20; Ibid., No. 14, 1901, 159; Ibid., No. 33, 1902, 343; and Ibid., No. 2, 1907, 9–10.

61. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 20, 1900, 229–32; and Ibid., No. 16, 1900, 190.

62. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 23, 1901, 257–63; Ibid., No. 19, 225; Ibid., No. 42, 1908, 407–11; Ibid., No. 46,444–5; Ibid., No. 6, 1912, 53–5; Ibid., No. 43, 1912, 421–2; and Ibid., No. 9, 1914, 81–2.

63. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 19, 1892, 269–76; Ibid., No. 23, 1892, 329–35; Ibid., No. 29, 1892, 417–20; Ibid., No. 50, 1893, 810–2; Ibid., No. 15, 1894, 258; Ibid., No. 41, 1894, 738–45; Ibid., No. 7, 1899, 84–9; Ibid., No. 37, 1899, 463–6; Ibid., No. 23, 1907, 199; and Ibid., No. 20, 1908, 199–200.

64. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 24, 1898, 278–9; Ibid., No. 20, 1899, 277; Ibid., No. 33, 1899, 409–12; Ibid., No. 20, 1900, 229–31; Ibid., No. 35, 1900, 387–8; Ibid., No. 23, 1901, 257–63; Ibid., No. 23, 1901, 257–63; and Ibid., No. 14, 1902, 152–5.

65. On the work of the station in the 1920s and 1930s, see Valk, Eesti sood, 191–2.

66. Baltische Wochenschrift, No. 1, 1903, 3–5; Ibid., and No. 4, 1903, 33–6.

67. Göttlich and Kuntze, “Nutzung,” 329.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Academy of Finland [Grant Number 267309].