The Saami between East and West in the Middle Ages: An archaeological contribution to the history of reindeer breeding

When did pastoral reindeer breeding emerge out of utilizing the reindeer as a decoy and means of transport? Where? Under what circumstances? Why was this form of economy significant for Saami communities which belonged to the Swedish trade network and not to the contemporary Danish‐Norwegian or Russian ones? The problem is illuminated here using social anthropological theory and historical‐archaeological evidence. Prerequisites for nomadism are economic reserves, e.g. silver, and regular contact with other economies. Thus, the Saami's silver accumulation, monetization and emerging external economical networks in the north are considered relevant to the problem, as well as ancient remains that surely represent pastoral reindeer breeding or new ways of using the environment. Pite and/or Luleå lappmark and adjacent parts of northern Norway are probably where reindeer pastoralism emerged. It seems to be of late medieval origin (15th century?), though its expansion principally is post‐medieval. The economic network established by the Swedish Crown in the Gulf of Bothnia in the 14th century, with the so‐called bircarlians (Sw. birkarlar) as middlemen in contacts with the interior parts of northern Fennoscandia, appears to have been of principal importance. This network was rendered more effective from the 17th century onward, a time when reindeer pastoralism became more and more significant. The article also illuminates how a group in the periphery came to be important for the territorial definition of states, in this case Sweden, Denmark‐Norway and Russia, and how opportunities for royal governance were created. The interpretation of the so‐called stallo (staid) sites is also discussed.