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Abstract
Background: Maternal depression is common during pregnancy, affecting 10–15% of mothers. In previous reports, the offspring of antenatally depressed mothers have had an elevated risk for antisocial, criminal and violent behaviour in adolescence, and for borderline personality features in childhood, but long-term outcomes are unknown.
Aims: To study whether the adult offspring of antenatally depressed mothers have an elevated risk for antisocial (ASPD) or borderline personality disorder (BPD) when followed until mid-adulthood.
Methods: In the general population-based Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort, mothers of 12,058 children were asked during mid-gestation if they felt depressed. Of the mothers, 14% reported being depressed. The offspring were followed for 49 years. The diagnoses of in- and outpatient-treated ASPD and BPD in the offspring were detected using the Finnish Care Register for Healthcare. Maternal antenatal smoking, newborn´s low birthweight or short gestational age, father’s social class, and family type at birth were considered as confounding variables. Logistic regression analyses on the potential confounders were performed. Maternal postnatal depression and paternal ASPD information was not available.
Results: In the male offspring of antenatally depressed mothers, the risk for ASPD was elevated (adjusted odds ratio 5.6; 95% confidence interval 1.8–17.8), but not in female offspring. The risk for BPD was not elevated in the offspring of antenatally depressed mothers in this study.
Conclusions: The sons of antenatally depressed mothers had an increased risk for ASPD. Prevention and treatment of antenatal depression might present an opportunity to decrease the risk of antisocial personality in the offspring.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank all cohort members and their parents and researchers who have participated in this study. The authors also wish to acknowledge the work of the NFBC project centre.
Disclosure statement
The authors have no competing interests to disclose.
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Notes on contributors
Tiina Taka-Eilola (Nèe Riekki)
Tiina Taka-Eilola: Tiina Taka-Eilola, MD, PhD is a medical doctor, specializing in psychiatry. She wrote her thesis on mental health in the adult offspring of antenatally depressed mothers. She is aiming to better understand the effects of antenatal depression on offspring, which could ultimately help prevent some of the childhood and later mental disorders. She is a board member of the Nordic branch of the International Marcé Society for Perinatal Mental Health, which is dedicated to supporting research and assistance surrounding prenatal & postpartum mental health for mothers, fathers, and their babies.
Juha Veijola
Juha Veijola: Juha Veijola, MD, PhD, is a Professor of Psychiatry and Head of the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Oulu, Finland. Professor Veijola has conducted psychiatric epidemiological studies since the 1980s. He is a long-term member of the research group of the Northern Finland 1966 and 1986 Birth Cohorts (http://www.oulu.fi/nfbc/).
Jouko Miettunen
Jouko Miettunen: Jouko Miettunen is a professor of clinical epidemiology at the Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland. He is currently a vice-dean of the University of Oulu Graduate School. He has an M.Sc. degree in statistics from the University of Oulu, Finland, an M.Phil. degree in epidemiology from the University of Cambridge, UK, and a Ph.D. in psychiatry from the University of Oulu, Finland. He has over 250 publications, especially on schizophrenia, temperament and medical statistics.
Jari Koskela
Jari Koskela: Jari Koskela is a statistician, Master of Science and a member of the Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
Liisa Kantojärvi
Liisa Kantojärvi: Liisa Kantojärvi, MD, PhD, is working as a senior physician in the Department of Psychiatry, Oulu University Hospital. Her research and publication interests include personality disorders and their associations with clinical and sociodemographic factors.
Pirjo Mäki
Pirjo Mäki: the late Pirjo Mäki, professor in psychiatry and adjunct professor in adolescent psychiatry at the University of Oulu, Finland DM, PhD, was also a specialist in child psychiatry, adolescent psychiatry and psychiatry. She has trained as a psychotherapist (Advanced Special Level). Her main interest in research was in psychiatric epidemiology and early family-related risk factors for schizophrenia, psychosis and other severe mental disorders, especially in the general population-based Northern Finland 1966 and 1986 Birth Cohorts (NFBC 1966 and 1986). The studies include long follow-ups of the offspring with maternal antenatal depression, parental psychosis and very early separation (see http://www.oulu.fi/medicine/node/43557). She was the founder chairperson of the board for special competences in adolescent medicine in the Finnish Medical Association and a founding member of the Nordic section of the Marcé Society for perinatal health.