Socialist Muckraker John Kenneth Turner: The Twenty-First Century Relevance of a Journalist/Activist's Career

Abstract

Socialist muckraker John Kenneth Turner not only went undercover to expose oppression of Mexican peasants but also ran guns for Mexican rebels. This article compares four aspects of the activist/journalist's nearly forgotten career to today's digital activists: as an investigative journalist for the Socialist weekly Appeal to Reason; as author of the influential 1909 “Barbarous Mexico” exposé; as an abettor of Mexican revolutionaries; and as an advocate against US intervention in Mexico through the 1920s. It considers ethical questions involving misrepresentation, verification, and conflicts of interest in Turner's career before concluding that although passion and a strong point of view historically are no barriers to effective journalism, transparency and verification remain its best barometers.

Notes

See David Carr, “Journalism, Even When It's Tilted,” New York Times, June 30, 2013; David Edwards, “Journalist or Activist? Smearing Glenn Greenwald,” Media Lens, October 23, 2013; Margaret Sullivan, “Who's a Journalist? A Question with Many Facets and One Sure Answer,” New York Times, June 29, 2013; and Matt Taibbi, “Hey MSM: All Journalism Is Advocacy Journalism,” Rolling Stone, June 27, 2013.

See Tamar Ashuri, “Activist Journalism: Using Digital Technologies and Undermining Structures,” Communication, Culture & Critique 5, no. 1 (March 2012): 38–56; Roy Greenslade, “What's So Wrong with Being a Journalist and an Activist?” Guardian (London), June 27, 2011; and Melissa Wall, “Social Movements and the Net: Activist Journalism Goes Digital,” in Digital Journalism: Emerging Media and the Changing Horizons of Journalism, ed. Kevin Kawamoto (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 113–122.

See Philip Hammond, “Moral Combat: Advocacy Journalism and the New Humanitarianism,” in Rethinking Human Rights: Critical Approaches to International Politics, ed. David Chandler (New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2002), 176–195; and Silvio Waisbord, “Advocacy Journalism in a Global Context,” in The Handbook of Journalism Studies, ed. Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Thomas Hanitzsch (New York: Routledge, 2009), 371–385.

See Andrew Beaujon, “Study Attempts to Define Journalists—Should We Define Acts of Journalism Instead?” Poynter, October 29, 2013, accessed March 26, 2014, http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/227485/study-attempts-to-define-journalists-should-we-define-acts-of-journalism-instead/; and Dan Gilmor, “Who's a Journalist? Does That Matter?” Salon, August 26, 2010, accessed March 26, 2014, http://www.salon.com/2010/08/26/who_is_a_journalist.

(2013; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 80. John Maxwell Hamilton, Journalism's Roving Eye: A History of American Foreign Reporting (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2009); and John Hohenberg, Foreign Correspondence: The Great Reporters and Their Times (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964).

See Richard Harding Davis, “When a War Is Not a War,” Scribner's Magazine (July 1914), 47–48.

See Brent Cunningham, “Re-thinking Objectivity,” Columbia Journalism Review, July 11, 2003, http://www.cjr.org/feature/rethinking_objectivity.php?page=all; and Jonathan Stray, “ ObjectivityandtheDecades-longShiftfrom‘JustTheFacts’to‘WhatDoesItMean?,’” Nieman Journalism Lab, May 22, 2013, http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/05/objectivity-and-the-decades-long-shift-from-just-the-facts-to-what-does-it-mean.

Haldeman-Julius Collection Special Collections, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas [henceforth referred to as H-JC]; and Ethel Duffy Turner Papers, 1907–1969, Special Collections, Bancroft Library, University of California–Berkeley [henceforth referred to as EDTP].

Eugenia Meyer, John Kenneth Turner: Periodista de Mexico (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 2005). See also Lorenzo León Diez, “Turner: Periodista de México,” Ciclo Literario, March 2006, http://cicloliterario.com/ciclo46Marzo2006/turnerperiodista.html; Rosalía Velázquez Estrada, México en la mirada de John Kenneth Turner (Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Azcapotzalco, 2004); Rosalía Velázquez Estrada, “John Kenneth Turner y Venustiano Carranza: Una alianza en contra del intervencionismo estadounidense,” Signos históricos 7 (2002): 201–228; and Ana Rita Tejeda, “Editan libro sobre John Kenneth Turner,” Gaceta [Órgano Informativo de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México], no. 3862 (January 2006): 13, 16.

Sinclair Snow, introduction to Barbarous Mexico, by John Kenneth Turner (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969), xxviii.

Eric Arthur Vaccarella, “John Kenneth Turner and the Mexican Revolution: An American Socialist Critique of Mexico, 1908–1921” (MA thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1993); William Christopher Walker, “John Kenneth Turner: Socialist Writer for the Appeal to Reason” (student paper, Special Collections, Leonard Axe Library, Pittsburg State University, 1981); and Claudio Lomnitz, The Return of Comrade Ricardo Flores Magón (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014).

Diana Christopulos, “American Radicals and the Mexican Revolution, 1900–1925” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1980), 98.

The Geopolitics of the New Information System in the Americas, 1866–1903 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013), 139–140.

Elliott Young, Catarino Garza's Revolution on the Texas–Mexico Border (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 197–199.

Soon after Turner's exposés were published, journalist Carlo De Fornaro began serving a year at hard labor in a New York prison after he was convicted of committing criminal libel against a Díaz colleague in his book, Díaz, Czar of Mexico. See Leonard Abbott, “Fornaro and His Book,” Mother Earth, December 1909, 321–323.

John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 100, 374.

Gilbert G. González, Culture of Empire: American Writers, Mexico, and Mexican Immigrants, 1880–1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 7. See other references to Turner in Sterling Evans, Bound in Twine: The History and Ecology of the Henequen-Wheat Complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880–1950 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2013), 58, 72, 75, 78; Janice Lee Jayes, The Illusion of Ignorance: Constructing the American Encounter with Mexico, 1877–1920 (Lanham: University Press of America, 2011), 94; Thomas C. Langham, Border Trials: Ricardo Flores Magón and the Mexican Liberals, monograph no. 65 (El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1981), 22; and Allan Meyers, Outside the Hacienda Walls: The Archaeology of Plantation Peonage in Nineteenth-century Yucatán (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012), 46.

Wiiliam H. Beezley and Colin M. MacLachlan, Mexicans in Revolution, 1910–1946: An Introduction (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 60.

John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 289n18. The authors of two British books published in 1909 and 1914 concurred with Turner's assessment of the Yucatán haciendas’ barbarous treatment of debt servants. Newspaper reporter Channing Arnold and archaeologist Frederick Frost, who actually toured the Yucatán in 1906–1907, found the region “rotten with a foul slavery.” Channing Arnold and Frederick J. Tabor Frost, The American Egypt: A Record of Travel in Yucatán (1909; repr., n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014), 139.

Barbarous Mexico, back cover.

Paul Vanderwood, review of Barbarous Mexico, by John Kenneth Turner, The Hispanic American Historical Review 50 (1970): 157.

Walker, “John Kenneth Turner,” 2, 8.

“Notes on the Life of John Kenneth Turner,” Carton 1, EDTP.

“Mexican Reflections of a ‘A Wild One,’” San Francisco Chronicle, March 14, 1965, in “Clippings re Ethel Duffy Turner” Folder, Carton 1, EDTP.

“Notes on the Life,” Carton 1, EDTP.

Ch. 5, p. 7, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón y el Partido Liberal Mexicano. Carton 1, EDTP.

See Ivie E Cadenhead Jr., “The American Socialists and the Mexican Revolution of 1910,” Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 43 (September 1962): 103–117.

William Dirk Raat and Michael M. Brescia, Mexico and the United States: Ambivalent Vistas (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 143. See also Harry H. Stein, “Lincoln Steffens and the Mexican Revolution,” American Journal of Economics and Society 34 (April 1975): 197–121.

John A. Britton, Revolution and Ideology: Images of the Mexican Revolution in the United States (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), 29. Socialist London's early enthusiasm for the revolution is overshadowed by his racist characterization of Mexicans in his coverage of Veracruz for Collier's Magazine. See Jack London, “The Trouble Makers of Mexico,” Collier's Magazine June 13, 1914, 13–14, 25.

Ch. 6, pp. 5–7, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Murray, “Mexico's Peon-slaves Preparing for Revolution,” International Socialist Review 9 (March 1909): 641–659.

Ch. 7, p. 1, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

See Brooke Kroeger, Nellie Bly: Daredevil, Reporter, Feminist (New York: Crown, 1994). Cochrane also preceded Turner as a critic of the Porfiriato when she reported on widespread poverty in Mexico in 1885. See Nellie Bly, Six Months in Mexico (New York: American Publishers, 1888).

While the Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics does not forbid the practice, for example, the Pulitzer Prize board rejects works based on misrepresentation. Recently, mainstream journalists criticized the undercover videos of conservative activist James O’Keefe, who calls himself a muckraker. “James O’Keefe,” On the Media, March 18, 2011, accessed March 30, 2014, http://www.onthemedia.org/story/133116-james-okeefe/transcript/.

“The Fate of Our Mexican Comrades,” Appeal, January 9, 1909, supplement.

“Conviction at Tombstone,” Appeal, May 29, 1909, p. 1.

John Sherman, “Revolution on Trial: The 1909 Tombstone Proceedings against Ricardo Flores Magón, Antonio Villareal, and Librado Rivera,” Journal of Arizona History 32 (Spring 1991): 190–191.

Ch. 7, pp. 1, 5, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Semonche, “The ‘American Magazine’ of 1906–15: Principle vs. Profit,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 40 (March 1963): 36.

See Judith Serrin and William Serrin, Muckraking: The Journalism That Changed America (New York: New Press, 2002).

Quoted in Doris Kearns Goodwin, The Bully Pulpit: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Golden Age of Journalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013), 358.

Ch. 7, pp. 6–7, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Kenneth Turner, “Barbarous Mexico: The Slaves of Yucatán,” American Magazine, October 1909, 525–538.

Introduction to “‘Barbarous Mexico’: A New Series of Articles to Begin Next Month,” American Magazine, September 1909, 501.

John Kenneth Turner, “Barbarous Mexico: The Slaves of Yucatán,” American Magazine, October 1909, 533.

Turner, “‘Barbarous Mexico’: The Slaves of Yucatán”; and Shelley Streeby, Radical Sensations: World Movements, Violence, and Visual Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013), 144–145.

Lomnitz, The Return, 114.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, November 13, 1912, Folder 72, H-JC.

George Shoaf to Fred Warren [ca. 1910], Folder 48, H-JC.

John Hersey, “The Legend on the License,” Yale Review 70 (Autumn 1980): 1–25.

Turner, Barbarous Mexico, 20.

Ibid., 30.

Ch. 5, p. 8, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Kenneth Turner, “‘Barbarous Mexico’: The Tragic Story of the Yaqui Indians,” American Magazine, November 1909, 33–48.

John Kenneth Turner, “Barbarous Mexico: With the Contract Slaves of the Valle Nacional,” American Magazine, December 1909, 250.

“Writer on Mexico Angry; J. K. Turner Says Magazine Has Suppressed Some of His Articles” New York Times, May 3, 1910, 3; John Kenneth Turner, “How the American Press Is Throttled,” Appeal to Reason, May 28, 1910, 1–2; John Kenneth Turner, “Díaz, Wall Street and the American Press,” Appeal to Reason, June 4, 1910, 1–2; and Ch. 8, p. 1, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

Young, Catarino Garza's Revolution, 197–199.

E. S. Smith, “The Truth about Mexico,” Bankers Magazine, November 1909, 687–696; Elisha Hollingsworth Talbot, “The Truth about Mexico,” Moody's Magazine December 1909, 27–34; Otheman Stevens, “Industrial Mexico,” Cosmopolitan, May 1910, 731–738; Otheman Stevens, “Mexico the Progressive,” Cosmopolitan, March 1910, 433–444; and Otheman Stevens, “Mexico Today and Tomorrow,” Cosmopolitan, April; 19, 576–587.

“Libeling Mexico,” Los Angeles Times, September 4, 1909, II4.

“Resents Slur on Republic: American Colony in Mexico Corrects Magazine,” Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1909, I8.

William Schell, Integral Outsiders: The American Colony in Mexico City, 1876–1911 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), 176–177, 242n107. See also Walker, “John Kenneth Turner, Socialist Writer,” 5.

See Semonche, “The ‘American Magazine’ of 1906–15,” 36–44. In his 1981 thesis, Eric Arthur Vaccarella only went so far as to acknowledge the possibility that “some power outside the magazine” pressured American to stop the series. Vaccarella, “John Kenneth Turner,” 77.

“Barbarous Mexico—Slave Colony of the United States,” Appeal, July 9, 1910, 1–2; “The Mexican Menace,” Appeal, July 23, 1910, 4; and “American Capitalism Official Executioner,” Appeal, July 30, 1910, 1. Socialist Progressive Woman also ran excerpts of Barbarous Mexico in 1911, and anarchist Mother Earth recommended the series to readers. “Observations and Comments,” Mother Earth, August 1910, 182–83.

Elliott Shore, Talkin’ Socialism: J. A. Wayland and the Role of the Press in American Radicalism, 1890–1912 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 4.

John Kenneth Turner, “The American Partners of Díaz,” International Socialist Review 10 (December 1910): 321. See also John Kenneth Turner, “The Revolution in Mexico,” International Socialist Review 11 (January 1911): 417–423; “Withdraw the Troops,” International Socialist Review 11 (April 1911): 585–588; and John Kenneth Turner, “Why Mexican Workers Rebel,” International Socialist Review 11 (April 1911): 589–592.

Ch. 8, p. 2. Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

Cassell and Company Ltd. of London published Barbarous Mexico first in March 1911 and reprinted it in 1912.

Pennsylvania Rep. William B. Wilson asked Congress in April 1910 to create a joint committee to investigate the charges, which stemmed from the radical press blitz on the Magón trial. Turner testified in mid-June at the House Committee on Rules hearings on the request. Providing for a Joint Committee to Investigate Alleged Persecutions of Mexican Citizens by the Government of Mexico: Hearings on H.J.R. 201, 61st Cong. (1910). See also “Turner and DeLara Testify at Washington,” Appeal, June 18, 1910, 1.

See Ramón D. Chacón, “Rural Educational Reform in Yucatán: From the Porfiriato to the Era of Salvador Alvarado, 1910–1918,” The Americas 42 (October 1985): 207–228; Gilbert Michael Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatán, Mexico, and the United States, 1880–1924 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); and Sarah Washbrook, Producing Modernity in Mexico: Labour Race, and State in Chiapas, 1876–1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

See Appeal, August 13, 1910, 1.

Ch. 9, p. 6, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

“Recepción a los Liberales Mexicanos,” Regeneración, September 3, 1910, 2.

Ch. 9, p. 9, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

Ethel Duffy Turner, ed., and annotated by Rey Davis, Revolution in Baja California: Ricardo Flores Magón's High Noon (Detroit: Blaine Ethridge, 1981), 4, 12; Ch. 10, p. 6, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP; and “Notes on the Life,” p. 7, EDTP. See Peter Gerhard, The Socialist Invasion of Baja California, 1911 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1948).

“Mexican Reflections of a ‘A Wild One,’” San Francisco Chronicle, March 14, 1965.

Ch. 15, pp. 4, 7, 5, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

“Notes on the Life,” p. 8, EDTP.

See Alissandra Darmov, Carmel-by-the-Sea, The Early Years (1903–1913) (Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2013), 183.

Ch. 16, p. 3, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, January 28, 1913, H-JC; and Ch. 16, pp. 4, 5, 7, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

Ch. 16, p. 9, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, February 21, 1913, Folder 97, H-JC. See also “John Kenneth Turner Writes the Appeal from a Mexican Prison,” Appeal, March 8, 1913, 1.

Telegrams, Fred Warren to Henry Ashurst, February 21, 1913; Henry Ashurst to Fred Warren, February 22, 1913; Richard Harding Davis to Henry Ashurst, February 25, 1913; and William Borland to James Williams, February 26, 1913, all in Folder 97, H-JC. See also Ch. 16, p. 10, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP.

“American Writer in Prison; John K. Turner, Author of ‘Barbarous Mexico,’ Arrested by Díaz's Order,” New York Times, February 20, 1913, 2; “Fear Killing of Author; Washington Government Is Asked to Save John Kenneth Turner,” New York Times, February 23, 1913, 2; “Turner Thrown into Prison; American Writer Jailed by Díaz for Criticising [sic] the General,” New York Times, February 24, 1913, 1; “Turner Tells of Torture; Writes That Díaz Threatened Him Three Times with Death,” New York Times, March 2, 1913, 11; “Turner Near Death in Mexico; Escaped in Disguise,” New York Times, March 8, 1913, 3; and “Turner Reported Free; Richard Harding Davis Writes Strong Appeal for Brother Author,” New York Times, February 25, 1913, 3.

Secretary of State Philander Knox to James Williams, February 27, 1913, Folder 97, H-JC.

Ch. 16, p. 13, Ms. Ricardo Flores Magón, EDTP. The ambassador denied Turner's charges against him. “Wilson Denounces Turner in Mexico,” New York Times, March 25, 1913, 5.

“Turner Tells of Escape,” New York Times, March 4, 1913, 1.

See Mari Boor Tonn, “Militant Motherhood: Labor's Mother Mary Harris Jones,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 82 (February 1996): 1–21; and David Corbin, The Socialist and Labor Star, 1912–1915 (Huntington, WV: Appalachian Movement Press, 1951).

Untitled, Appeal, May 10, 1913, 1. See also “An Imprisoned Editor,” Appeal, May 23, 1913, 1.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 17, 18, 1913, both in Folder 100, H-JC.

“J. K. Turner to Write of West Virginia,” Appeal, April 26, 1913, 1. See also “Meaning of Governor Hatfield's Military Dictatorship,” Appeal, May 10, 1913, 1; John Kenneth Turner, “Conditions More Appalling Than in Barbarous Mexico,” Appeal, May 17, 1913, 1; “Unmasking the Villains,” Appeal, May 24, 1913, 1; “Crimes of a Private Army,” Appeal, May 31, 1913, 1; and “Crimes of a Military Rule,” Appeal, June 7, 1913, 1. Turner complained to Warren about his editing and cuts to his copy. J. K. Turner to Fred Warren, May 8, 1913, Folder 101, H-JC.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 10, 1913, Folder 99, H-JC.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 18, 1913, Folder 100, H-JC.

Shore, Talkin’ Socialism, 183.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 18, 1913, Folder 100, H-JC.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 17, 1913, Folder 100, H-JC.

J. K. Turner to Fred Warren, April 18, 1913, Folder 100, H-JC.

Appeal, April 11, 1914, 1.

Untitled, Appeal, May 23, 1913, 1.

John Kenneth Turner to Fred Warren, April 17, 1913, Folder 100, H-JC.

George Falconer, “Machine Guns and Coal Miners,” International Socialist Review 14 (December 1913): 327–329; and Robert Knight, “Fighting to Win in Colorado,” International Socialist Review 14 (December 1913): 330–334.

“Strikers Tortured by John D's Hirelings,” Appeal, March 28, 1914, 1; and “Soldiers Attack Helpless Women,” Appeal April 4, 1914, 1. See also John Kenneth Turner, “Cossacks Outdone by Colorado Militiamen,” Appeal, March 21, 1914, 1; and John Kenneth Turner, “Czar Chase Is Real Colorado Governor,” Appeal, March 14, 1914, 2.

John Kenneth Turner, “Gunman Profession First Founded by James Farley,” Appeal, June 6, 1914, 1.

“John Kenneth Turner Opens Fire on Government by Gunmen,” Appeal, May 9, 1914, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “Villa Has Sold Out to Wall Street, Charges Turner,” Appeal, April 3, 1915, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “Villareal, Inspired by Ideals of Socialism, Is Leader of the Revolution in Mexico,” Appeal, April 10, 1915, 1.

“Inside Story of the Taking of Vera Cruz Reveals That American Marines Outraged and Murdered Helpless People,” Appeal, July 10, 1915, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “General Carranza, through the Appeal, Pleads Cause of Mexican Revolution,” Appeal, June 19, 1915, 1; and “Debs Congratulates the Appeal on Turner Interview with Carranza,” Appeal, July 3, 1915, Folder Clippings re John Kenneth Turner, Carton 2, EDTP; John Kenneth Turner, “Constitutionalists, Led by Carranza, Are Real Revolutionaries of Mexico,” Appeal, April 17, 1915, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “‘Hands Off Mexico!’ Is Turner's Plea,” Appeal, March 27, 1915, 1; and “Recall the US Troops from Mexico!” Appeal, March 25, 1916, 1. See also “President Wilson's Deceptive Mexican Policy Exposed by John Kenneth Turner,” Appeal, April 24, 1915, 1; and “No Intervention! American Dollars Must Not Help Crush Revolution of Mexican People!” Appeal, August 7, 1915, 1.

“An Open Letter to President Wilson,” Appeal, May 8, 1915, 1. See also John Kenneth Turner, “President Wilson's Deceptive Mexican Policy Exposed by John Kenneth Turner,” Appeal, April 24, 1915, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “Recall the US Troops from Mexico,” Appeal, March 25, 1916, 1.

John Kenneth Turner, “Anti-Jingoes Win an Epoch-making History; Why Wilson Turns Back from Mexican War,” Appeal, July 22, 1916, 1.

Folder “Clippings: California: Early Literary Carmel,” Carton 1, EDTP. Lomnitz quotes John as saying Ethel “deserted” him in 1916. Lomnitz, The Return, 14.

John Kenneth Turner, “What We Should Do about Mexico,” Nation, December 13, 1919, 740–742; and John Kenneth Turner, “Why We Should Leave Mexico Alone, Nation, November 29, 1919, 680–682.

John Kenneth Turner, “Why the Obregón Government Has Not Been Recognized,” Nation, June 1, 1921, 783–785.

See “Is Democracy Recoverable?” Nation, December 13, 1922, 667–668; and “Shall It Be Again?” Pearson's Magazine, August 1922, 42–43.

H. L. Mencken, “Various Notes, “Baltimore Evening Sun, August 8, 1921, Folder “Turner John Kenneth, Shall It Be Again—Reviews,” Carton 2, EDTP.

Streeby, Radical Sensations, 285n3.

James Plenn, “Ethel Turner, Friend of Flores Magón, Dead at 84,” News, September 1, 1964, 2; and “Recuerdos de Ethel Duffy Turner,” Siempre! September 10, 1969, 5, all in Folder “Clippings re Ethel Duffy Turner,” Carton 1, EDTP.

Darmov, Carmel-by-the-Sea, 216.

The Editors, “Brooke Kroeger on James O’Keefe and Undercover Reporting: A CJR Podcast,” Columbia Journalism Review, March 15, 2011, accessed March 30, 2014, http://www.cjr.org/the_kicker/brooke_kroeger_on_james_okeefe.php.

See Meyers, Outside the Hacienda Walls, 51–52; and Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, 298.

See John A. Britton, “From Antagonism to Accord: The Controversy over the Mexican Revolution in the Political Culture of the United States,” in Open Borders to a Revolution: Culture, Politics, and Migration, ed. Jaime Morroquin, Adel Pineda Franco, and Magdalena Mieri (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2013).