Heritage and Hate: Constructing Identity in the Raleigh News and Observer’s Progressive-Era Coverage of the Ku Klux Klan

Abstract

Despite its harms, hate speech is protected under the First Amendment because it constitutes expression of political ideology and group identity. Although this concept is rooted in Progressive Era judicial philosophy, its significance is also evident in Progressive Era coverage of the Ku Klux Klan. Specifically, Ku Klux Klan coverage in the Raleigh (NC) News and Observer under Josephus Daniels from 1898 to 1924 constitutes a case of the partisan press constructing southern white identity across literary, civic, and political domains. Identity politics may have also influenced Daniels’s approach to Progressive censorship and transparency efforts. This case underscores links between freedom for hate speech and identity building in the partisan press well before the courts articulated a free-speech philosophy of identity.

Notes

1 Lee A. Craig, Josephus Daniels: His Life and Times (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 279.

2 E.g., “Legalized Primaries a Necessary Corollary to the Constitutional Amendment,” News and Observer (Raleigh, NC), February 4, 1899; “The Vampire That Hovers over North Carolina,” News and Observer, September 27, 1898; “Don’t Be Tempted by the Devil,” News and Observer, October 26, 1898.

3 Josephus Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, Josephus Daniels Papers, North Carolina Collection, scan 30, folder 78, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

4 Jane Marcellus, “Nervous Women and Noble Savages: The Romanticized ‘Other’ in Nineteenth-century US Patent Medicine Advertising,” Journal of Popular Culture 41, no. 5 (2008): 789–90.

5 Melita M. Garza, “Framing Mexicans in Great Depression Editorials: Alien Riff-raff to Heroes,” American Journalism 34, no. 1 (2017): 27. Michael Fuhlhage, “Brave Old Spaniards and Indolent Mexicans: J. Ross Browne, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, and the Social Construction of Off-Whiteness in the 1860s,” American Journalism 31, no. 1 (2014): 100–26; Michael Fuhlhage, “The Mexican Image through Southern Eyes: De Bow’s Review in the Era of Manifest Destiny,” American Journalism 30, no. 2 (2013): 182–209.

6 Fuhlhage, “The Mexican Image through Southern Eyes,” 182–209.

7 James W. Carey, Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society, rev. ed. (New York: Routledge, 2009), 17.

8 James W. Carey, “The Problem of Journalism History,” Journalism History 1, no. 1 (1974): 5.

9 Pete Simi, Kathleen Blee, Matthew DeMichele, and Steven Windisch, “Addicted to Hate: Identity Residual among Former White Supremacists,” American Sociological Review 82, no. 6 (2017): 1167, 1170; M. Mark Miller and Julie Andsager, “Protecting 1st Amendment? Newspaper Coverage of Hate Speech,” Newspaper Research Journal 18, nos. 3–4 (1997): 2; Frederick Schauer, “The Boundaries of the First Amendment: A Preliminary Exploration of Constitutional Salience,” Harvard Law Review 117, no. 6 (2004): 1765.

10 Bent Flyvbjerg, “Case Study,” in The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, ed. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2011), 301–17.

11 This case focuses on the work of Josephus Daniels. Its scope does not fully address the complex editorial politics associated with covering the Klan in the Progressive Era. For a fuller discussion of editorial politics and Klan violence, see John C. Nerone, Violence against the Press: Policing the Public Sphere in US History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 135–39.

12 Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States: 1492–Present (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 365–69.

13 Linda Cobb-Reiley, “Not an Empty Box with Beautiful Words on It: The First Amendment in Progressive Era Scholarship,” Journalism Quarterly 69, no. 1 (Spring 1992): 45.

14 R.A.V. v. St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 380 (1992).

15 Ibid., 391.

16 Ibid., 401 (White, J., concurring).

17 Frederick Schauer, “Principles, Institutions, and the First Amendment,” Harvard Law Review 112, no. 8 (1998): 85.

18 Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003).

19 Transcript of Oral Argument at 22–23, Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003) (No. 01–1107).

20 Virginia v. Black, at 357.

21 Virginia v. Black, at 356. Klansmen even entered into marriage sacraments beneath fiery crosses and dressed in Klan regalia. Ibid. In his study of the La Grande, Oregon, chapter of the Ku Klux Klan, David A. Horowitz found that members of the La Grande Klan treated the burning cross as a symbol of Christian sacrifice and considered attaching light bulbs and a battery to a cross on a hillside so that the Klan’s Christian purpose could remain “a-blaze [] in the hearts of all.” David A. Horowitz, “The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited,” Society 35, no. 6 (1998): 75.

22 Vincent Blasi, “Holmes and the Marketplace of Ideas,” Supreme Court Review 2004 (2004): 2, 40.

23 Mari J. Matsuda, Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech (London: Routledge, 1993).

24 Genevieve Lakier, “The Invention of Low-value Speech,” Harvard Law Review 128, no. 8 (2015): 2198–99. The “hate speech” concept did not enter the American zeitgeist until the mid-twentieth century and did not develop into a significant judicial issue until the 1990s. Samuel Walker, Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).

25 Jeremy Cohen, “The Absence of the First Amendment in Schenck v. United States: A Reexamination,” American Journalism 2, no. 1 (1985).

26 249 U.S. 47 (1919).

27 250 U.S. 616 (1919).

28 Thomas Healy, “The Justice Who Changed His Mind: Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and the Story behind Abrams v. United States.” Journal of Supreme Court History 39, no. 1 (2014): 35.

29 Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 628 (1919) (Holmes, J., dissenting).

30 Justice Louis Brandeis, who was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, frequently argued that only a “clear and present danger” of “serious evils” justified limitations on freedom of expression. Justice Brandeis reiterated his position in Whitney v. California, a case in which the Supreme Court upheld the conviction of Charlotte Anita Whitney for advocating forcible overthrow of the government. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357 (1927). Justice O’Connor cited Brandeis’s language to support overturning the Virginia cross-burning statute in Virginia v. Black. Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003).

31 Despite this longstanding First Amendment tradition, some critical scholars argue that hate speech should not be protected under the First Amendment. Gilbert Paul Carrasco, “Hate Speech and the First Amendment: On a Collision Course,” Villanova Law Review 37, no. 4 (1992): 723.

32 United States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644, 654–55 (1929) (Holmes, J., dissenting).

33 Stephen Cresswell, “Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890,” Journal of Southern History 53, no. 3 (August 1987): 421; Bruce E. Stewart, “‘When Darkness Reigns Then Is the Hour to Strike’: Moonshining, Federal Liquor Taxation, and Klan Violence in Western North Carolina, 1868–1872,” North Carolina Historical Review 80, no. 4 (2003): 453; Richard Zuczek, “The Federal Government’s Attack on the Ku Klux Klan: A Reassessment,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 97, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 47.

34 Zuczek, 47–64.

35 Form letter of Gov. William W. Holden, September 30, 1870, W. W. Holden correspondence 1846–79, North Carolina Collection, scan 11, fol. 1, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

36 Cresswell, 421.

37 Nerone, 149.

38 Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 68. See also Edward De Grazia and Roger K. Newman, Banned Films: Movies Censors and the First Amendment (1982), 3–6, 180–83. De Grazia and Newman recount fear among supporters of The Birth of a Nation that the film would be suppressed because of its likelihood to result in race riots. This prompted the film’s author and adapter, Thomas Dixon, to prescreen it at the White House for President Woodrow Wilson and members of the Cabinet in order to gain political support against future censorship efforts.

39 Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan,” Journal of American History 92, no. 3 (2005): 811–36.

40 David M. Rabban, Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); David M. Rabban, “The Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine,” University of Chicago Law Review 50, no. 4 (Fall 1983): 1205; David M. Rabban, “The Free Speech League, the ACLU, and Changing Conceptions of Free Speech in American History,” Stanford Law Review 45, no. 1 (1992): 47.

41 Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Klan Skepticism and Denial in Reconstruction-Era Public Discourse,” Journal of Southern History 77, no. 1 (2011): 53; Andrew Silver, “Making Minstrelsy of Murder: George Washington Harris, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Reconstruction Aesthetic of Black Fright,” Prospects 25 (2000): 339–62.

42 Zuczek, 47–64.

43 Nerone, 149; Glenn Feldman, 68.

44 Nerone, 149.

45 Parsons, “Klan Skepticism and Denial in Reconstruction-Era Public Discourse,” 53.

46 In his study of the Ku Klux Klan and the ideological fight over authoritative Americanism, George Lewis wrote, “[F]rom the formal establishment of the Klan’s second phase in 1915 until that call for a federal investigation of what was, by then, the third phase of Klan activity fifty years later, civil rights activists and Klansmen were engaged in an ideological battle over the true meaning of Americanism and un-Americanism.” George Lewis, “‘An Amorphous Code’: The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965,” Journal of American Studies 47, no. 4 (2013): 972. Groups such as the Red Shirts and the White League, which branched off from the organized Klan during after Reconstruction, violently targeted non–Anglo Saxon groups and their partisan press sympathizers. Nerone, Violence against the Press, 149.

47 Shawn Lay, ed., The Invisible Empire in the West (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004). Lay describes archives of “klavern” documents from Western states that suggest that the Klan garnered both significantly more mainstream, populist appeal and mobility in local politics than many Klan histories have previously considered.

48 Paul M. Pruitt Jr., “Historic Notes and Documents: Judge Henry D. Clayton and ‘A Klansman’: A Revealing Exchange of Views,” Florida Historical Quarterly 81, no. 3 (2003): 323.

49 Bradford W Scharlott, “Hoosier Journalists and the Hooded Order; Indiana Press Reaction to the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s,” Journalism History 15, no. 4 (1988): 122.

50 Nerone, 135. For example, one Democratic paper in Louisiana wrote: “Fire is called a good servant but a dangerous master… [W]e have an idea, a sanguine hope and an abiding belief that it will prove your master yet.” “An Outrage” (editorial), Opelousas Courier, February 29, 1868.

51 Nerone, 149.

52 Alexander S. Leidholdt, “‘Never Thot This Could Happen in the South!’ The Anti-Lynching Advocacy of Appalachian Newspaper Editor Bruce Crawford,” Appalachian Journal 38, nos. 2–3 (2011): 198; William F. Mugleston, “Julian Harris, the Georgia Press, and the Ku Klux Klan,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 59, no. 3 (1975): 284; Ron F. Smith “The Klan’s Retribution against an Indiana Editor: A Reconsideration,” Indiana Magazine of History 106, no. 4 (2010): 381.

53 John Moffat Mecklin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Study of the American Mind (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1924), 13, 113, and 239.

54 Ibid., 288.

55 Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, scan 10, fol. 79.

56 Jeffrey B. Martin, “Film out of Theatre: D. W. Griffith, ‘Birth of a Nation’ and the Melodrama ‘The Clansman,’” Literature/Film Quarterly 18, no. 2 (1990): 87.

57 Dr. Theodore Bryant Kingsbury, “The Love Story of Petrarch and Laura,” News and Observer, January 29, 1905.

58 “Thomas Dixon—The Man and His Work,” Washington Post (Washington, DC), January 29, 1905.

59 Craig, 375–77.

60 “In the Literary World. Tom Dixon’s Book a Great Success,” News and Observer, March 26, 1905.

61 Dr. Theodore Bryant Kingsbury, “Dixon’s Reply Strikes Sympathetic Chords,” News and Observer, March 19, 1905.

62 “Tom Dixon—The Man and His Novels,” News and Observer, February 19, 1905.

63 Meta Folger Townsend, “Here and There,” News and Observer, May 21, 1905.

64 “Modern Ideas of Scenery—Why “The Clansman” Is Mounted with Such Attention to Detail—Atmosphere Most Important in Southern Plays,” News and Observer, September 30, 1905.

65 “Not out to Make Money,” News and Observer, October 9, 1908.

66 “To Study the Ku-Klux—Scholars Will Visit ‘Clansman’ Scenes at Manager’s Invitation,” News and Observer, August 6, 1907.

67 See, e.g., “Gives an Account of the Origin of the Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, October 29, 1920.

68 Josephus Daniels, Editor in Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941): 530.

69 Ibid., 530–31.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid., 532.

72 Montgomery filed a defamation lawsuit against Dixon claiming that he had viciously libeled his ancestry and caused him reputational damage. The parties settled the lawsuit without proceeding to trial. Daniels, Editor in Politics, 531.

73 Ibid.

74 Ibid.

75 Ibid.

76 Robert K. Murray, The 103rd Ballot: Democrats and Disaster in Madison Square Garden (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).

77 See, e.g., “Ku Klux Klan Moves Mrs. Freeman’s Goods,” News and Observer, June 20, 1922.

78 Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, scan 30, fol. 78.

79 “Ritchie Agrees to Eliminate Klan from Literature,” News and Observer, July 5, 1919.

80 “Ku Klux Klan Reported Started in Richmond, Va.,” News and Observer, July 31, 1919.

81 “Gives an Account of the Origin of the Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, October 29, 1920.

82 Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, scan 30, fol. 78.

83 “Gov. Morrison to Make War on Ku Klux Klan in State,” News and Observer, February 4, 1921. See also “Governor’s Attack on Ku Klux Klan Finding Support,” News and Observer, February 5, 1921; “Ku Klux Klan is Denounced,” Durham Morning Herald, September 21, 1921; “The Ku Klux Klan,” The Independent (Elizabeth City, NC), February 11, 1921.

84 A. L. Fletcher, “Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, January 9, 1921.

85 “Imperial Kleagle Is Speaker Here,” News and Observer, Feb. 19, 1921 “K.K.K. Ku Klux Klan A Special Representative of the Imperial Wizard Will Address the Citizens of Raleigh,” News and Observer, May 20, 1921; “Nolan Speaker for Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, May 21, 1921.

86 “The New York World’s Campaign against the KKK,” News and Observer, September 18, 1921.

87 “Says Ku Klux Klan Sends Letters of Threat,” News and Observer, November 5, 1921.

88 “Atlanta Lawyer Institutes Suit against Ku Klux,” News and Observer, October 11, 1921; “Norfolk Chief Denies He’s a Member of the Klan,” News and Observer, October 12, 1921.

89 “Klan Takes Hand in Murder Case,” News and Observer, March 8, 1922; “Ku Klux Klan Moves Mrs. Freeman’s Goods,” News and Observer, June 20, 1922.

90 For more detail on the Ku Klux Klan’s use of costume, theater, blackface, song, and minstrelsy in conjunction with the “Reign of Terror,” see Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Midnight Rangers,” 811–36.

91 “Ku Kluxers Climb into the Limelight: Make Donation to Building Fund of New Bern Church in Twin City,” News and Observer, September 26, 1922; “Ku Klux Klan Gives $25 for a New Church,” News and Observer, September 25, 1922; “Ku Klux Klan Gives $25 to Onslow Church,” News and Observer, August 29, 1922; “Ku Klux Klan Gives Purse to Minister: Write Fairmont Minister They Endorse His Stand against Wrong,” News and Observer, September 20, 1922.

92 John T. Kneebone, “Publicity and Prejudice: The New York World’s Exposé of 1921 and the History of the Second Ku Klux Klan,” VCU Scholars Compass (2015).

93 W. J. Cash, Mind of the South (New York: Knopf, 1941), 336.

94 Craig, 374, 378.

95 “Milwaukee Opposes Klan,” News and Observer, August 28, 1921.

96 Kevin Stoker and Brad Rawlins, “The ‘Light’ of Publicity in the Progressive Era: From Searchlight to Flashlight,” Journalism History 30, no. 4 (2005): 2.

97 “Probe of KKK,” News and Observer, September 23, 1921; “Rules Committee Digs into Doings of Secret Order,” News and Observer, October 12, 1921; “Resume Hearing on Ku Klux Klan Monday,” News and Observer, October 15, 1921.

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

100 Michael Schudson, “The Objectivity Norm in American Journalism,” Journalism 2, no. 2 (2001): 162. The truth-seeking function was seized upon by the Penny Press editors of the antebellum institutional press. Andie Tucher, Froth and Scum: Truth, Beauty, Goodness, and the Ax Murder in America’s First Mass Medium (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 117–27; Stoker and Rawlins, 2.

101 Joseph L. Morrison, Josephus Daniels Says… (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 221.

102 “Newspaper Gives Masons’ Attitude to Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, October 14, 1922.

103 “Impartial Law Enforcing Way to Suppress Ku Klux,” News and Observer, November 26, 1922.

104 “People’s Forum: What Is the Hullabaloo About?” News and Observer, December 10, 1922.

105 News and Observer, January 11–14, 1927.

106 “Grand Master of Masons Denounces Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, June 20, 1922; “Newspaper Gives Masons’ Attitude to Ku Klux Klan,” News and Observer, October 14, 1922; Jonathan W. Daniels, interview by Charles W. Eagles, Southern Oral History Program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, March 9–11, 1977.

107 “Attack Invisible Empire in Speech,” News and Observer, May 20, 1920; see, e.g., “Rules Committee Digs into Doings of Secret Order,” News and Observer, October 12, 1921; “Actions Don’t Fit Republican Talk about Efficiency,” News and Observer, October 20, 1921.

108 Nerone, 148–50.

109 Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, scan 70, fol. 79.

110 Richard W. Steele, “Fear of the Mob and Faith in Government in Free Speech Discourse, 1919–1941,” American Journal of Legal History 38, no. 1 (1994); John Wertheimer, “Mutual Film Revisited: The Movies, Censorship, and Free Speech in Progressive America,” American Journal of Legal History 37, no. 2 (1993); Margaret A. Blanchard, “The American Urge to Censor: Freedom of Expression versus the Desire to Sanitize Society—From Anthony Comstock to 2 Live Crew,” William and Mary Law Review 33, no. 3 (1992); Bill Lynskey, “Reinventing the First Amendment in Wartime Philadelphia,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 131, no. 1 (2007): 33, 54.

111 Eric Olund, “Cinema’s Milieux: Governing the Picture Show in the United States during the Progressive Era,” Journal of Historical Geography 38, no. 1 (2012): 57–68.

112 Shelley Stamp, “Moral Coercion or The National Board of Censorship Ponders Vice Films,” in Controlling Hollywood: Censorship and Regulation in the Studio Era, ed. Matthew Bernstein (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999), 41–42. See also Nancy J. Rosenbloom, “In Defense of the Moving Pictures: The People’s Institute, the National Board of Censorship, and the Problem of Leisure in Urban America,” American Studies 33, no 2. (Fall 1992); Jennifer Fronc, “‘Historical Presentation’ or ‘Libel to the Race’?: Censorship and The Birth of a Nation,” Journal of the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era 14, no. 4 (2015): 596–98.

113 Paul Polgar, “Fighting Lightning with Fire: Black Boston's Battle against ‘The Birth of a Nation,’” Massachusetts Historical Review 10 (2008): 84.

114 Raymond Allen Cook, Thomas Dixon (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1974), 116; Ellen C. Scott, “‘Black’ Censor,’ White Liberties: Civil Rights and Illinois's 1917 Film Law,” American Quarterly 64, no. 2 (2012): 219; Paul McEwan, “Lawyers, Bibliographies, and the Klan: D. W. Griffith’s Resources in the Censorship Battle over The Birth of a Nation in Ohio,” Film History 20, no. 3 (2008): 357.

115 “Woman’s Council Seeks to Censor Movies in State,” News and Observer, January 8, 1921; “Urges Purifying of Movies in State,” News and Observer, November 23, 1920; “Rector Advocates Movie Censorship,” News and Observer, May 3, 1920.

116 McEwan, 357.

117 Tom Rice, “Protecting Protestantism: The Ku Klux Klan vs. the Motion Picture Industry,” Film History: An International Journal 20, no. 3 (2008): 367.

118 “Rector Advocates Movie Censorship,” News and Observer, May 3, 1920.

119 Milton A. Barber, “Massachusetts Censorship Bill Pass Lower House,” News and Observer, May 20, 1920.

120 “Society—Censoring Moving Pictures,” News and Observer, May 20, 1920.

121 “State Federation Notes,” News and Observer, April 11, 1920.

122 Josephus Daniels, Life Begins at Seventy, scan 31, fol. 78.

123 Craig, 377.

124 “Rocky Mount Klansmen Stage Theatrical Show,” News and Observer, February 5, 1922; Thomas A. Arthur, “The People’s Forum: As to What Ended Scalawagism,” News and Observer, June 29, 1922.

125 “Thomas Dixon to Fight Censorship,” News and Observer, February 8, 1921; “Roads, Ticks, and Censorship Hold Stage This Week,” News and Observer, February 14, 1921. It is important to note that Daniels did not personally author editorials during the period he served as Secretary of the Navy. Nevertheless, his principal biographer, Lee Craig, found that he exercised strict editorial control over his confidant Edward Britton. Craig, 279–80.

126 “Roads, Ticks, and Censorship Hold Stage This Week,” News and Observer, February 14, 1921.

127 “Dr. Thomas Dixon Pleads against Censorship Bill,” News and Observer, February 18, 1921; “Tom Dixon Debates Movie Censorship,” News and Observer, February 28, 1922.

128 “Dr. Thomas Dixon Pleads against Censorship Bill,” News and Observer, February 18, 1921.

129 “Woman’s Council Seeks to Censor Movies in State,” News and Observer, January 8, 1921.

130 “Be Fair to Movies,” News and Observer, February 17, 1921.

131 Jonathan Worth Daniels, interview by Charles Eagles, March 9–11, 1977, interview A-0313 (University of North Carolina, Southern Oral History Program Collection).

132 Parsons, “Midnight Rangers,” 814.

133 Joseph L. Morrison, “A Southern Philo-Semite: Josephus L. Daniels of North Carolina,” Judaism: A Quarterly Journal 12, no. 1 (Winter 1963): 34–37.

134 For an exploration of enduring connections between modern Ku Klux Klan protests and Lost Cause narratives perpetuated in Southern folk life, see Michael J. Goleman, Your Heritage Will Still Remain: Racial Identity and Mississippi’s Lost Cause (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2017).

135 Jenna Bailey, “Heritage, Not Hate”: The Mississippi State Flag as a Conduit of Colorblind Racism (Ph.D. diss., University of Mississippi, 2017); Jonathan I. Leib, “Heritage versus Hate: A Geographical Analysis of Georgia’s Confederate Battle Flag Debate,” Southeastern Geographer 35, no. 1 (1995): 37–57; Mitch Berbrier. “‘Half the Battle’: Cultural Resonance, Framing Processes, and Ethnic Affectations in Contemporary White Separatist Rhetoric,” Social Problems 45, no. 4 (1998): 431–50.

136 Luke O’Brien and Jessica Schulberg, “This Neo-Nazi Speech Shows the Rally in Charlottesville Was Always Meant to Be Violent,” Huffington Post, February 20, 2018 (8:24 p.m.), https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/neo-nazi-video-charlottesville-violence_us_5a8ca5dce4b00a30a250606c.

137 Kathleen Blee, “Ethnographies of the Far Right,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 36, no. 2 (2007): 124.

138 Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Revisiting The Birth of a Nation at 100 Years,” Journal of the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era 14, no. 4 (2015): 596–98.

139 James L. Swanson, “Unholy Fire: Cross Burning, Symbolic Speech and the First Amendment,” Cato Supreme Court Review 2003 (2003): 82–83.