The Cultural Pluralist Response to Americanization: Horace Kallen, Randolph Bourne, Louis Adamic, and Leonard Covello

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Notes

1. Leonard Dinnerstein and David Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration (New York: Harper & Row, 1998), 43.

2. Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 184.

3. John McClymer, “The Americanization Movement and the Education of the Foreign-Born Adult, 1914–1925,” in American Education and the European Immigrant: 1880–1940, ed. Bernard Weiss (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1982), 97f.

4. Thomas Archdeacon, Becoming American: An Ethnic History (New York: Free Press, 1983), 175, 207; Gerald Meyer, “English Only: Its Historical Antecedents,” Punto7 Review (Fall 1992), 88.

5. Stephan Brumberg, Going to America, Going to School: The Jewish Immigrant Public School Encounter in Turn-of-Century New York City (New York: Praeger, 1986), 71, 177, 208.

6. Selma Berrol, “Public Schools and Immigrants: The New York Experience,” in American Education and the European Immigrant, ed. Weiss, 37.

7. William Greenbaum, “America in Search of a New Ideal,” Harvard Educational Review, 44, 3 (1974), 431.

8. Leonard Covello, with Guido D'Agostino, The Heart is the Teacher (New York: McGraw Hill, 1958), 29f, 43f.

9. Susan Dicker, Languages in America: A Pluralist View (Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters, 1996), 35.

10. Alan Kraut, The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American Society, 1880–1921 (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1982), 145f.

11. McClymer, “The Americanization Movement,” 110f.

12. Glenn Altschuler, Race, Ethnicity, and Class in American Social Thought, 1865–1919 (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1982), 62, 65. For a more critical interpretation of Jane Addams's approach to cultural pluralism see Rivka Shpak Lissak, Pluralism and Progressives: Hull House and the New Immigrants, 1890–1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).

13. Alan Wald, The New York Intellectuals: The Rise and Decline of the Anti-Stalinist Left (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 29.

14. Horace Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot: A Study of American Nationality: Part I and Part II,” The Nation (Feb.18, 1915, 190–94; and Feb. 25, 217–20). The term “cultural pluralism” first appeared in a slightly revised version of this essay published in 1924. Philip Gleason, Speaking of Diversity: Language and Ethnicity in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 220, 51. Kallen's New York Times obituary made no specific mention of his pioneering work in cultural pluralism. “Dr. Horace Kallen, Philosopher, Dies” (Feb. 17, 1974), 66.

15. Leonard Ayres, Laggards in Our Schools: A Study in Retardation and Elimination in City School Systems (New York: Charities Publications, 1910), 104.

16. The 1910 Census revealed that foreign-born residents accounted for 14.6% of the total US population. The 20-year period from 1890 to 1910 accounted for 84% of the Italians and 90% of the Eastern European Jews who had to that time arrived in the United States. S.C. Watkins and A. Robles, After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), 372f.

Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America, 184.

17. Gerald Meyer, “L'Unità del Popolo: The Voice of Italian American Communism, 1939–1951,” Italian American Review (Spring/Summer 2001), 121–56.

18. Kallen, “Democracy Versus the Melting Pot, Part II,” 219. Kallen suggested the operation of a nonlinear course to the process of Americanization, where after the immigrants' children achieved a certain level of economic success, “[the acculturation process] slows down and then comes to a stop.” He anticipated that national self-consciousness among the various immigrant nationalities would increase as a result of discrimination and hostility from the dominant society. Indeed, he detected a process of disassimilation at the point when the immigrant group formed a “solitary spiritual unit.” “Democracy versus the Melting Pot, Part II,” 217–19.

19. Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting Pot, Part II,” 220. On the general question of the cultural pluralists' failure to associate their goals with the strivings of African Americans for full equality, see Nathan Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 110–14.

20. John Higham, Send These to Me (New York: Atheneum, 1975), 208.

21. Leslie Vaughan, Randolph Bourne and the Politics of Cultural Radicalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), 130.

22. Arieh Lebowitz, “Socialist Zionism,” in The Encyclopedia of the American Left, 2nd edition, ed. Mari Jo Bhule, Paul Buhle, and Dan Georgakas (New York: Garland Publishing, 1998), 779–81. The Reconstructionist movement, which was founded in 1935 by Mordecai Kaplan, envisioned a Jewish identity essentially based on culture. Allen Guttmann, The Jewish Writers in America: Assimilation and the Crisis of Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 94f. The Jewish Bund, a secular Left party based on the Yiddish language and culture, had an enormous following in Eastern Europe, but only a small presence in the United States. Much of Jewish secularism found a home in the Socialist and Communist movements.

23. Peter Rutkoff and William Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), 79f.

24. Philip Cannistraro, Blackshirts in Little Italy: Italian Americans and Fascism, 1921–1929 (West Lafayette, IN: Bordighera Press, 1999).

25. Joshua Fishman, Language Loyalty in the United States: The Maintenance and Perpetuation of Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic and Religious Groups (The Hague: Mouton, 1966).

26. Archdeacon, Becoming American, 134.

27. Some of the entries in The Immigrant Left in the United States, ed. Paul Buhle and Dan Georgakas (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996) contribute much to an understanding of this much neglected topic.

28. See also: Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Paul Avrich, “Sacco and Vanzetti's Revenge,” in The Lost World of Italian American Radicalism: Labor, Politics, Culture, ed. Philip Cannistraro and Gerald Meyer (Westport, CT: Praeger Press, 2003), 163–70; David DeLeon, The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1978), 85–101.

29. Gerald Meyer, “Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti: Their Legacy,” Voices of Italian Americana 19, 1 (2008), 49–72.

30. Salvatore Salerno, Red November, Black November: Culture and Community in the Industrial Workers of the World (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 10.

31. James Weinstein, The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912–1925 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1983), 24, 182. For examples of radicalized immigrant communities see Gerald Meyer, “Marcantonio and El Barrio,” Centro: Journal of the Center of Puerto Rican Studies (Spring 1992), 66–87 (reprint of chapter from Gerald Meyer, Vito Marcantonio: Radical Politician (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1989)); and Gary Mormino and George Pozzetta, “The Radical World of Ybor City [Tampa], Florida,” in The Lost World of Italian American Radicalism, 253–64.

32. Randolph Bourne, “Trans-National America,” Atlantic Monthly (July 1916), reprinted in Randolph Bourne: The Radical Will, Selected Writings 1911–1918, ed. Olaf Hansen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

33. Randolph Bourne, “Toward a Trans-National America,” in The Menorah Treasury: Harvest of Half a Century, ed. Leo Schwartz (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1964), 848.

34. Bourne, “Trans-National America,” 251–52, 254.

35. Kallen later helped found the Menorah Society whose publication, the Menorah Journal, became a major vehicle for the propagation of an anti-assimilationist-cosmopolitan cultural pluralism. Wald, New York Intellectuals, 29–31.

36. Bourne, “A War Diary,” quoted in Leslie Vaughan, Randolph Bourne and the Politics of Cultural Radicalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), 124, 134.

37. Hansen, The Radical Will, “Introduction,” 52.

38. McClymer, “The Americanization Movement,” 98; see also, Dicker, Languages in America, 71.

39. Robert Coughlan, “Konklave in Kokomo,” in The Private Side of American History: Readings in Everyday Life, Vol. II, ed. Thomas Frazier (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 196, 199.

40. Examples of Popular Front culture that reflect America's ethnic diversity and connect the European immigrant cultures with African Americans include: “Ballad for Americans,” a cantata with music by Earl Robinson and lyrics by John LaTouche, which was initially performed in 1939 with Paul Robeson as soloist; Street Scene: An American Opera, with music by Kurt Weill and libretto by Langston Hughes, which was first performed in 1947; “Let America Be America Again,” a poem commissioned by the International Workers Order in 1939, by Langston Hughes. Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1997), 115–18, 319.

41. Here Buhle was referring to members of the “Jewish creative world of mass entertainment,” but his astute evaluation holds true for all the creative cultural workers associated with Popular Front culture in the United States. Buhle and Georgakas, The Immigrant Left, 103.

42. Although Irish Americans provided major Communist leaders (William Z. Foster, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Mike Quill), they were the only ethnic group among whom the Party failed to build a base. Communist Activities among Aliens and National Groups: Hearings, Part 2 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1950), 524.

43. Harvey Klehr and John Haynes, The American Communist Movement: Storming Heaven Itself (New York: Twayn Publishers, 1992), 18f, 73f; Irving Howe and Lewis Coser, The American Communist Party: A Critical History (New York: Praeger, 1962); Nathan Glazer, The Social Basis of American Communism (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), 221.

44. Thomas Walker, Pluralistic Fraternity: The History of the International Workers Order (New York: Garland Publishing 1991), 15. Outside this umbrella, the Party led a number of fraternal organizations of other nationalities. Matjaz Klemencic, “American Slovenes and the Leftist Movements in the United States of the Twentieth Century,” Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1996), 22–43.

45. Barrington Moore, “The Communist Party of the USA: An Analysis of a Social Movement,” American Political Science Review (Feb. 1945), 38.

46. Communist Activities among Aliens and National Groups: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Immigration and Naturalization of the Senate Judiciary, 1949: Part I (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950), 520f, 529f. To date, there is only one published work on the American Committee for the Protection of the Foreign Born – John Sherman's A Communist Front at Mid-Century: The American Committee for Protection of Foreign Born, 1933–1959 (Westport CT: Praeger, 2001), which only touches on aspects of this organization's large history. The 60 feet of papers, documenting the history of the American Committee are deposited in the Labadie Collection of the University of Michigan, and await a scholar who will write a more comprehensive book about this most important part of the history of the foreign born.

47. William Patterson, The Man Who Cried Genocide: An Autobiography (New York: International Publishers, 1991), 75–90.

48. E.P. Hutchinson, Immigrants and Their Children, 1850–1950 (New York: John Wiley, 1956), 3, 8.

49. Louis Adamic, From Many Lands (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940), 294.

50. Archdeacon, Becoming American, 191f. The increase in the Jewish vote reflected not only a decrease in voting Republican, but also, in New York City and elsewhere, a massive desertion from the Socialist Party.

51. Richard Jensen, “The Cities Re-elect Roosevelt: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in 1940,” Ethnicity (June 1981), 192f.

52. Bernard Berelson, et al., Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), 62f. To some extent, Truman's remarkably Left domestic program, which appealed to the members of the traditional New Deal coalition, developed in response to the candidacy of Henry Wallace running as the candidate of the Progressive Party, whose vote was also mostly comprised of ethnic minorities and African Americans. Norman Markowitz, The Rise and Fall of the People's Century: Henry Wallace and American Liberalism, 1941–1948 (New York: Free Press, 1973).

53. Rudolph Vecoli, “Louis Adamic and the Contemporary Search for Roots,” Ethnic Studies (1978), 31.

54. Dynamite, which was first published in 1931, was re-issued in 1984 in London by Rebel Press.

55. Adamic, From Many Lands, 301; Adamic, Two Way Passage (New York: 1941), 77; “This Crisis Is an Opportunity,” 65, quoted in Robert Harney, “E Pluribus Unum: Louis Adamic and the Meaning of Ethnic History,” in If One Were to Write a History: Selected Writings by Robert Harney, ed. Pierre Anctil and Bruno Ramirez (Toronto, Canada: Multicultural History Society, 1991), 87.

56. Adamic, From Many Lands, 293.

57. Louis Adamic, “Thirty Million New Americans,” Harper's Monthly (Nov. 1934), 685–91.

58. Vecoli, “Louis Adamic,” 32. See also: Louis Adamic, Nation of Nations (New York: Harper Brothers, 1940), 9; William Charles Beyer, “Louis Adamic (1898–1951): His Life, Work, and Legacy,” Spectrum (Fall 1982), 1–9.

59. Harney, “E Pluribus Unum,” 182.

60. Vecoli, “Louis Adamic,” 33.

61. Adamic, “Thirty Million New Americans,” 692.

62. Adamic, Nation of Nations, 7.

63. William Charles Beyer, “Creating Common Ground on the Home Front: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in a 1940s Quarterly Magazine,” in The Home-Front War: World War II and American Society, eds. Kenneth O'Brian and Lynn Parsons (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishers, 1995), 41–53.

64. Bourne, “The Democratic School,” quoted in Vaughan (note 36), 75.

65. To date, the published scholarship on Covello is surprisingly limited. It includes these articles by Gerald Meyer: “Leonard Covello: A Pioneer in Bilingual Education,” Bilingual Review (Jan.–Aug. 1985), 55–61; “Leonard Covello and Vito Marcantonio: A Lifelong Collaboration for Progress,” Italica (Spring 1985), 54–66; “Leonard Covello (1887–1982): An Italian American Contribution to the Education of Minority-Culture Students,” Italian American Review (Spring 1996), 36–43; and “When Frank Sinatra Came to Italian Harlem: The 1945 ‘Race Riot’ at Benjamin Franklin High School,” in Are Italians White?: How Race Is Made in America, eds. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York: Routledge, 2003), 161–76. Fortunately, a major book on Covello has recently appeared: Michael Johanek and John Puckett, Leonard Covello and the Making of Benjamin Franklin High School: Education as if Citizenship Matters (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007).

66. The Italians, 80% of whom came from Southern Italy, were likely the most proletarianized of the New Immigrants. The occupations of male Italian emigrants in 1910, for example, listed only 0.37% as “liberal professions,” and only 10% as “artisans and manufacturing.” Of those who had identifiable occupations, nearly 90% were peasants or laborers. What distinguished the Italians from the German and Jewish immigrants was that the latter included large numbers of skilled workers. Bollettino dell'Emigrazione, no. 18 (1910), Table 7, 20f.

67. Leonard Covello, The Social Background of the Italo-American School Child: A Study of the Southern Italian Family Mores and Their Effect on the School Situation in Italy and America (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967).

68. Leonard Covello, “Community Centered School,” Covello Collection: Box 19, Folder 13/19 (Citizenship). Henceforth citations from the Covello Collection will appears as: CC: B, F (Subject). The Covello Collection, which is deposited in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, consists of 54 linear feet of shelf space organized into 108 boxes, containing an extraordinary range of material – including correspondence with family members and the largest collection of material about Italian Harlem – that document Covello's lifelong work.

69. Covello, “Community Centered School,” CC: B19, F13/19 (Citizenship).

70. Covello, “Community Centered School,” CC: B19, F19/22 (Chap, XVI “Adult Ed”).

71. Robert Peebles, Leonard Covello: A Study of an Immigrant's Contribution to New York City (New York: Arno Press), 144; Mario Cosenza, “Foreword,” First Book in Italian, by Leonard Covello and Annita Giacobbe (New York: Macmillan, 1937), vii.

72. Covello, The Heart is the Teacher, 129–37.

73. At New York University, Covello taught “The Social Background of The Italian Family in America” and “School-Community Education” primarily to teachers matriculated in the Masters of Education degree program. The course lectures provided much of the material for “The Social Background of the Italo-American School Child.” See: Francesco Cordasco, “Urban Education: Leonard Covello and the Community School,” School & Society (Summer 1970). The major accomplishment of the Education Bureau was its sponsorship of a series of pamphlets, which pioneered the study of the Italian American experience. Its titles include: “The Italian Population of New York City,” by William Shedd; “Occupational Trends of Italians in New York City,” by John D'Alesandre; and “Language Usage in Italian Families,” by Leonard Covello, which was also published in two parts in Atlantica (Oct. and Nov. 1934). See also, Peebles, Leonard Covello, 332.

74. Covello, “Neighborhood Growth Through The School,” Progressive Education (Feb. 1938), 127.

75. Covello, “A High School and Its Immigrant Community: A Challenge and an Opportunity,” The Journal of Educational Sociology (Feb. 1936), 332; Gerald Meyer, “Italian Harlem: America's Most Italian Little Italy,” in The Italians of New York: Five Centuries of Struggle and Achievement, ed. Philip Cannistraro (Milan: Mondadori, 1999), 57–68.

76. Johanek and Puckett, Leonard Covello and the Making of Benjamin Franklin High School, 109–226.

77. Covello's link to the Migration Division of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was its director Joseph Monserrat, an alumnus of Benjamin Franklin. In 1969, Monserrat became the president of New York City's Board of Education. Monserrat, who had been tremendously active as a student at Benjamin Franklin, evolved from protégé to collaborator. After his appointment as president of the Board of Education, Monserrat wrote Covello: “Please remember that my deep interest in public education started many years ago when I was a student at Benjamin Franklin and was lucky enough to have ‘Pop’ Covello as the Principal.” Monserrat to Covello (July 1, 1969), CC: Series III. B5, F (JM). “Pop” was the nickname initially given to Covello by Marcantonio, another protégé, when he was a student of his in DeWitt Clinton. Covello, The Heart, 152. Covello served as a consultant for The Puerto Rican Study: 1958–1957: A Report on the Education and Adjustment of Puerto Rican Pupils in the Public Schools of the City of New York, Director J. Cayce Morrison, intro. Francesco Cordasco (New York: Oriole Editions, 1972), 253.

78. In The Heart Is the Teacher, Covello talks about his early attraction to socialism. (57f, 89) Covello's political inclinations are partially revealed in Meyer, “When Frank Sinatra Came to Italian Harlem.” Correspondence between Covello and Norman Thomas and other documentation about his relationship to the Socialist Party are in possession of the author. In 1969, Covello wrote to Layle Lane (an African American member of Benjamin Franklin's faculty, during his tenure as principal): “As a people we have surrendered practically completely all power to the president and military-industrial complex to the point where we seem to be headed toward a Fascist State.” CC B4, F4/25 (Lane, Layle).

79. On the Lusk Committee see: Julian Jaffe, Crusade against Radicalism: New York during the Red Scare (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1972); on the Rapp-Coudert Hearings see Stephen Leberstein, “Purging the Profs: The Rapp-Coudert Committee in New York, 1940–1942,” in New Studies in the Politics and Culture of U.S. Communism, eds. Michael Brown, et al. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1993); on the McCarthy period see Celia Zitron, The New York City Teachers Union: 1916–1964: A Story of Educational and Social Commitment (New York: Humanities Press, 1968).

80. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity, 53, 56.

81. Nicholas Montalto, “The Forgotten Dream: A History of the Intercultural Education Movement, 1924–1941” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1977), 19.

82. Covello, “Community Centered School,” CC: B19, F13/19 (Citizenship). Elsewhere he defined assimilation as “the adjustment of the immigrants and their children to the American culture.” Social Background, 410.

83. Leonard Covello, “Language as a Factor in Integration and Assimilation: The Role of the Language Teacher in a School-Community Program,” Modern Language Journal (Feb. 1919), 330.

84. Frederick Binder and David Reimers, All the Nations under Heaven: An Ethnic and Racial History of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 193.

85. Joseph Roucek and Bernard Eisenberg, America's Ethnic Politics (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 20f.

86. Fishman, Language Loyalty.

87. Ellen Schrecker, “Immigration and Internal Security: Political Deportation during the McCarthy Era,” Science & Society (Winter 1996–1997), 395.

88. Meyer, “English Only: Its Historical Antecedents,” 88.

89. Schrecker, “Immigration and Internal Security,” 399, 403. An Immigration and Naturalization Services regulation that forbade sending aliens back to their home countries if those countries refused to accept them saved most of those targeted for deportation, the vast majority of whom had been born in Eastern European countries whose Communist governments refused to cooperate with the United States persecution of the Left.

90. David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 239.

91. Kent, who had designed the IWO logo and contributed drawings for the covers of IWO-issued pamphlets, assumed the IWO's presidency in 1949. He possessed a number of characteristics that the leadership of this beleaguered organization believed helpful at this time: he had an Anglo-Saxon pedigree and name to match; he was not an open Communist; and he had achieved the reputation as a major American artist. None of this deterred the government's determination to destroy this unique organization. Unable to find a major American museum that would accept his extensive personal inventory of his art, Kent donated hundreds of his works to “the people of the Soviet Union.” In 1967, he was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize. Arthur Sabin, Red Scare in Court: New York versus the International Workers Order (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 22, 47, 285; “Rockwell Kent,” Wikipedia.com

92. Sabin, Red Scare in Court, 252. The author of this fine book notes, “with the exception of certain labor unions, the IWO was the largest, most successful left-wing organization in modern American history. It was the strongest, most enduring, and most sizable Communist-affiliated group” (351).

93. David Caute, The Great Fear, 173f; Sabin, Red Scare in Court, 315.

94. Klemencic, “American Slovenes and the Leftist Movements,” 22–43; Hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee on Communist Activities in Alien and National Groups, Part 2, 618, 625, 654. In Yugoslavia, the Left had gained a much larger following in Serbia than in Croatia; however, in the United States, it was much weaker in the Serbian-American than in the Croatian-American community. Communist Activities among Aliens and National Groups: Hearings, Part 2, Part 2, 618, 625, 654.

95. “Rally Here Cheers Message by Stalin: U.S. Policy as It Affects Russia Decried; [Sec. of State] Byrnes Booed at Slav Congress Session,” New York Times (Sept. 23, 1946), 1; William Goldsmith, “The Theory and Practice of the Communist Front” (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1971), 556–63.

96. Curtis MacDougall, Gideon's Army, Vol. II (New York: Marzani & Munsell, 1965), 549; Klemencic, “American Slovenes,” 38.

97. Montalto, “The Forgotten Dream,” 291, 67f. See also: Nicholas Montalto, “The Intercultural Education Movement, 1924–1941: The Growth of Tolerance as a Form of Intolerance,” in American Education and the European Immigrant, 142–60.

98. Steve Nelson, James Barrett, and Rob Ruck, Steve Nelson: American Radical (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 290.

99. Bourne, “The Jew and Trans-National America,” quoted in Vaughan, 136f.

100. Covello, “A High School and Its Immigrant Community,” 340f.

101. Richard Alba, Italian Americans: Into the Twilight of Ethnicity (New York: Prentice Hall, 1985).

102. “Forming a More Diverse Union,” New York Times (June 29, 2003); “A Changing Face,” New York Times (Feb. 12, 2006), A12; “U.S. Data Show Rapid Minority Growth in School Rolls,” New York Times (June 1, 2007), A21; “Seven-Year Immigration Rate Is Highest in U.S. History,” New York Times (Nov. 29, 2007), A20.

103. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now.

104. In 1945, Adamic stated, “The pattern of America is the blend of cultures from many lands woven of threads from all corners of the earth. Diversity is the American pattern – the stuff and color of the American fabric.” Louis Adamic, “Unity in Adversity,” an address delivered before the Manhattan Women's Division of the American Jewish Congress on Oct. 30, 1945; published in A Monthly Summary of Events and Trends in Race Relations (Sept. 1945), 162f.