Ethnic Allegiance and Class Consciousness among Italian-American Workers, 1900–1941

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Notes

1. Philip V. Cannistraro and Gerald Meyer, “Italian American Radicalism: An Interpretative History,” in The Lost World of Italian American Radicalism: Politics, Labor, and Culture, ed. Philip V. Cannistraro and Gerald Meyer (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 5–6.

2. Philip S. Foner, The Industrial Workers of the World (New York: International Publishers, 1965), 306–50; Peppino Ortoleva, “Una voce dal coro: Angelo Rocco e lo sciopero di Lawrence del 1912,” Movimento operaio e socialista 4 (January–June 1981), 5–32; Michael Miller Topp, Those without a Country: The Political Culture of Italian American Syndicalists (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 92–134.

3. Fraser M. Ottanelli, “‘If Fascism Comes to America We Will Push It Back into the Ocean’: Italian American Antifascism in the 1920s and 1930s,” in Italian Workers of the World: Labor Migration and the Formation of Multiethnic States, ed. Donna R. Gabaccia and Fraser M. Ottanelli (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 178–95. For the execution of Sacco and Vanzetti as a turning point, see Rudolph J. Vecoli, “The Search for an Italian American Identity: Continuity and Change,” in Italian Americans: New Perspectives in Italian Immigration and Ethnicity, ed. Lydio F. Tomasi (Staten Island, NY: Center for Migration Studies, 1985), 94.

4. Susanna Garroni, “Serrati negli Stati Uniti: Giornalista socialista e organizzatore degli emigrati italiani,” Movimento Operaio e Socialista 7 (December 1984), 324.

5. Paolo Valera, Giacinto Menotti Serrati direttore dell'Avanti! (Milan: La Folla, 1920), 35. For Serrati's years as an exile, see also in general Anna Rosada, Giacinto Menotti Serrati nell'emigrazione, 1899–1911 (Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1972).

6. Elisabetta Vezzosi, Il socialismo indifferente: Immigrati italiani e Socialist Party negli Stati Uniti del primo Novecento (Rome: Edizioni Lavoro, 1991), 116.

7. Vanni B. Montana, Amarostico: Testimonianze euro-americane (Leighorn: Bastogi, 1975); Gabriella Facondo, Socialismo italiano esule negli USA, 1930–1942 (Foggia: Bastogi, 1993); Bénédicte Deschamps, “Opposing Fascism in the West: The Experience of Il Corriere del Popolo in San Francisco in the late 1930s,” in Italian Immigrants Go West: The Impact of Locale on Ethnicity, ed. Janet E. Worrall, Carol Bonomo Albright, and Elvira G. Di Fabio (Cambridge, MA: American Italian Historical Association, 2003), 109–23.

8. Donna R. Gabaccia, Militants and Migrants: Rural Sicilians Become American Workers (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988), 55–75; Bruno Cartosio, “Sicilian Radicals in Two Worlds,” in In the Shadow of the Statue of Liberty: Immigrants, Workers, and Citizens in the American Republic, 1880–1920, ed. Marianne Debouzy (Saint-Denis: Presses Universitaires de Vincennes, 1988), 117–28. For the perception of the Sicilian fasci movement from the United States, see Lucia Ducci, “An American View of the Italian Crisis at the End of the Century (1890–1900),” VIA: Voices in Italian Americana 17 (Fall 2006), 44–51. For Crispi, see Christopher Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901: From Nation to Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

9. Carlo Tresca, The Autobiography of Carlo Tresca, ed. Nunzio Pernicone (New York: John D. Calandra Italian American Institute, 2003), 75. For Tresca, see Dorothy Gallagher, All the Right Enemies: The Life and Murder of Carlo Tresca (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Nunzio Pernicone, Carlo Tresca: Portrait of a Rebel (London: Palgrave, 2005).

10. Luigi Antonini, “Il nostro avvenire è in America,” Giustizia 19 (February 1936), 9. For Antonini, see Guido Tintori, “Amministrazione Roosevelt e Labor etnico: Un caso italiano, Luigi Antonini” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Milan, 2003).

11. Tresca, The Autobiography, 75–76.

12. Vincent J. Tirelli, “The Italian-American Labor Council: Origins, Conflicts, and Contributions,” in Italian-American Labor Council, 50 Years of Progress: Golden Anniversary (New York: Italian-American Labor Council, 1991), 1–3; Charles A. Zappia, “Labor,” in The Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia, ed. Salvatore J. LaGumina, Frank J. Cavaioli, Salvatore Primeggia, and Joseph A. Varacalli (New York: Garland, 2000), 327.

13. “Il problema della diffusione della lingua italiana,” La Stampa Libera (May 3, 1936), 2.

14. Rosara Lucy Passero, “Ethnicity in the Men's Ready-Made Clothing Industry, 1880–1950: The Italian Experience in Philadelphia” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1978), 302–03; Richard N. Juliani, “Italians and Other Americans: The Parish, the Union, and the Settlement House,” in Perspectives in Italian Immigration and Ethnicity, ed. Silvano M. Tomasi (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1977), 182; Ronald L. Filippelli, “Luigi Antonini, the Italian-American Labor Council, and Cold-War Politics in Italy, 1943–1949,” Labor History 33 (Winter 1992), 116–18.

15. Robert Asher, “Union Nativism and Immigrant Response,” Labor History 23 (Summer 1982), 325–48; Bruno Cartosio, “Gli emigranti italiani e l'Industrial Workers of the World,” in Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini, Gli italiani fuori d'Italia: Gli emigranti italiani nei movimenti operai dei paesi d'adozione (1880–1940), ed. Bruno Bezza (Milan: Angeli, 1983), 368–74; Catherine Collomp, Entre classe et nation: Mouvement ouvrier et immigration aux États-Unis, 1880–1920 (Paris: Belin, 1998).

16. Anna Maria Martellone, Una Little Italy nell'Atene d'America: La comunità italiana di Boston dal 1880 al 1920 (Naples: Guida, 1973), 136–38; Anna Maria Martellone, “Introduzione,” in La “questione” dell'immigrazione negli Stati Uniti, ed. Anna Maria Martellone (Bologna: il Mulino, 1980), 53.

17. Gianna S. Panofsky, “A View of Two Major Centers of Italian Anarchism in the United States: Spring Valley and Chicago, Illinois,” in Italian Ethnics: Their Languages, Literature, and Lives, ed. Dominic Candeloro, Fred L. Gardaphe, and Paolo A. Giordano (Staten Island, NY: American Italian Historical Association, 1990), 279.

18. Luciano J. Iorizzo and Salvatore Mondello, The Italian Americans (New York: Twayne, 1971), 79; Edwin Fenton, Immigrants and Unions, a Case Study: Italians and American Labor, 1870–1920 (New York: Arno, 1975), 503–7, 539–43; Charles A. Zappia, “Unionism and the Italian-American Workers: The Politics of Anti-Communism in the ILGWU in New York City, 1900–1925,” in The Italian Americans through the Generations, ed. Rocco Caporale (Staten Island, NY: American Italian Historical Association, 1986), 78–79.

19. Charles H. Trout, Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 325–26.

20. Minutes of the Executive Board, Italian Cloak, Suit and Skirt Makers' Union, Local 48, ILGWU, May 20, 1937, microfilm edition, reel 2, University of Florence, Biblioteca di Storia e Letteratura Nordamericana, Florence, Italy.

21. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 251–360; Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 131–55.

22. Stefano Luconi, “La partecipazione politica in America del Nord,” in Storia dell'emigrazione italiana: Arrivi, ed. Piero Bevilacqua, Andreina De Clementi, and Emilio Franzina (Rome: Donzelli, 2002), 493–96.

23. Ronald H. Bayor, Neighbors in Conflict: The Irish, Germans, Jews and Italians of New York City, 1929–1941 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 41, 55; Luigi Antonini, “La battaglia elettorale di novembre,” Giustizia 21 (December 1938), 3–4.

24. Mary Testa, “Anti-Semitism among Italian Americans,” Equality 1 (July 1939), 27–29.

25. Bayor, Neighbors in Conflict, 47.

26. Manual of the City Council of Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Dunlap, 1937), 286; Manual of the City Council of Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Dunlap, 1939), 288; “Spilli e spilloni,” La Voce Indipendente 1 (November 1938), 3.

27. Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, “Industrial Unionism and Labor Movement Culture in Depression-Era Philadelphia,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 109 (January 1985), 22.

28. Leon Sacks to Charles Weinstein, Philadelphia, October 10, 1938, Papers of the Joint Board of the “Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America,” box 9, folder “Labor's Non-Partisan League, General Correspondence, 1938,” Temple University Urban Archives, Paley Library, Philadelphia.

29. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961), 49, 51; Frederick M. Wirt, Power in the City: Decision Making in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 235; Bayor, Neighbors in Conflict, 147.

30. Renzo De Felice, Mussolini, il rivoluzionario, 1883–1920 (Turin: Einaudi, 1965); Arrigo Petacco, Il comunista in camicia nera: Nicola Bombacci tra Lenin e Mussolini (Milan: Mondadori, 1996).

31. Ministry of the Interior, Casellario Politico Centrale, box 5225, folder 65589 “Trombetta, Domenico Antonio,” Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Rome, Italy; Ario Flamma, Italiani di America (New York: Cocce Press, 1936), 350–51; Report of the Federal Bureau of Investigation by Joseph T. Genco, Washington, DC, December 7, 1942, 865.20211/Trombetta Domenico/7, Department of State, Record Group 59, microfilm series LM 142, reel 41, National Archives II, College Park, MD; Gaetano Salvemini, Italian Fascist Activities in the United States, ed. Philip V. Cannistraro (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1977), 36–37, 77–80, 85–88.

32. Philip V. Cannistraro, Blackshirts in Little Italy: Italian Americans and Fascism, 1921–1929 (West Lafayette, IN: Bordighera, 1999), 15–16.

33. “Ultimi movimenti nei due campi politici,” L'Opinione (October 17, 1934), 2; Ministry of the Interior, Casellario Politico Centrale, box 685, folder 78963 “Bocchini, Filippo,” Archivio Centrale dello Stato; Federal Bureau of Investigation, File 62-HQ-32701 “Filippo Bocchini,” FBI Archives, Washington, DC.

34. Ministry of the Interior, Casellario Politico Centrale, box 4466, folder 45710 “Rossoni, Edmondo,” Archivio Centrale dello Stato; Ferdinando Cordova, “Edmondo Rossoni,” in Uomini e volti del fascismo, ed. Ferdinando Cordova (Rome: Bulzoni, 1980), 337–403; John J. Tinghino, Edmondo Rossoni: From Revolutionary Syndicalism to Fascism (New York: Lang, 1991). For Il Proletario in this period, see Elisabetta Vezzosi, “Class, Ethnicity, and Acculturation in Il Proletario: The World War One Years,” in The Press of the Labor Migrants in Europe and North America, ed. Christiane Harzig and Dirk Hoerder (Bremen, Germany: Publications of the Labor Newspaper Preservation Project, 1985), 443–55.

35. Eugenia Scarzanella, Italiani malagente: Immigrazione, criminalità, razzismo in Argentina, 1890–1940 (Milan: Angeli, 1999); Mario Carelli, Carcamanos e comendadores: Os italianos de São Paulo, da realidade ã ficcão, 1919–1930 (São Paulo: Atica, 1985); Enzo Barnabà, Morte agli italiani: Il massacro di Aigues-Mortes (Montenegro: Bucalo, 2001).

36. Maria de Luján Leiva, “Il movimento antifascista italiano in Argentina (1922–1945),” in ed. B. Bezza, Gli italiani fuori d'Italia (Milan: Fondazione Brodolini, 1983), 549–92; João Fábio Bertonha, Sob a sombra de Mussolini: Os italianos de São Paulo e a luta contra o fascismo, 1919–1945 (São Paulo: Annablume, 1999); Simonetta Tombaccini, Storia dei fuorusciti italiani in Francia (Milan: Mursia, 1988). Still, except perhaps for France, the following of fascism in these countries was not negligible among Italian immigrants. See Emilio Gentile, “L'emigrazione italiana in Argentina nella politica di espansione del nazionalismo e del fascismo,” Storia Contemporanea 17 (June 1986), 355–96; João Fábio Bertonha, O fascismo e os imigrantes italianos no Brasil (Porto Alegre: Edipucrs, 2001); Fascisti in Sud America, ed. Eugenia Scarzanella (Florence: Le Lettere, 2005); Caroline Wiegandt-Sakoun, “Le Fascisme italien en France,” in Les Italiens en France de 1914 à 1940, ed. Pierre Milza (Rome: École française de Rome, 1986), 431–69.

37. Stefano Luconi, “From Left to Right: The Not So Strange Career of Filippo Bocchini and Other Italian-American Radicals,” Italian American Review 6 (Autumn–Winter 1997–1998), 64–65. For the strike in Little Falls, see Robert E. Snyder, “Women, Wobblies, and Workers' Rights: The 1912 Textile Strike in Little Falls, New York,” New York History 60 (January 1979), 29–57.

38. Edmondo Rossoni, “Per una Camera del Lavoro,” Il Proletario (September 28, 1912), 3; Elisabetta Vezzosi, “La Federazione Socialista Italiana del Nord America tra autonomia e scioglimento nel sindacato industriale, 1911–1921,” Studi Emigrazione 21 (March 1984): 92–93; Tinghino, Edmondo Rossoni, 48–51.

39. Enzo Giustiniani, “Sindacalismo nazionale,” Il Grido della Stirpe (December 8, 1923), 3.

40. Baldo Aquilano, “La canaglia sovversiva trasforma le unioni in covi anti-Italiani,” Il Grido della Stirpe (May 17, 1924), 1.

43. Gaetano Salvemini, Memorie di un fuoruscito, ed. Gaetano Arfé (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1960), 110.

41. Domenico Saudino, “La muta fascista e la Locale 89,” La Parola del Popolo 50 (December 1958 – January 1959), 215–17; Nicoletta Pardi Corbella, “Storia di un sindacato operaio italiano a New York (i sarti),” in Rudolph J. Vecoli et al., Gli italiani negli Stati Uniti: L'emigrazione e l'opera degli italiani negli Stati Uniti (Florence: Istituto di Studi Americani, 1972), 373; Philip Jenkins, Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 94.

42. Angelo Flavio Guidi, “Fervore d'Italiani in America,” Il Legionario (October 20, 1935), 12; Fulvio Suvich to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Washington, DC, February 18, 1937, Records of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, series “Affari Politici, Stati Uniti, 1931–1945,” box 35, folder “Unione Italiana d'America: Servizio Informazioni Propaganda,” Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Rome, Italy; Vincent M. Lombardi, “Italian American Workers and the Response to Fascism,” in Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class, ed. George E. Pozzetta (Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario, 1980), 141–57; Matteo Pretelli, “Fasci italiani e comunità italo-americane: Un rapporto difficile,” Giornale di Storia Contemporanea 4 (June 2001), 123–24, 127–31; Matteo Pretelli, “Tra estremismo e moderazione: Il ruolo dei circoli fascisti italo-americani nella politica estera italiana degli anni Trenta,” Studi Emigrazione 40 (September 2003), 318, 320.

44. Fiorello B. Ventresco, “Italian Americans and the Ethiopian Crisis,” Italian Americana 6 (Autumn–Winter 1980), 18–19.

45. G.E. Modigliani, “A proposito di collette per la Croce Rossa,” Giustizia 19 (January 1936), 11; “Il fascismo italiano in America si nasconde dietro la Croce Rossa,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (November 23, 1935), 6–7. For Giustizia, see Bénédicte Deschamps, “Giustizia, the ILGWU's Official Italian Organ (1919–1935),” Altreitalie 35 (July–December 2007), 69–86. For L'Adunata dei Refrattari, see Leonardo Bettini, Bibliografia dell'anarchismo: Periodici e numeri unici anarchici pubblicati all'estero, 1872–1971 (Florence: Crescita Politica Editrice, 1976), 212–14, 294–95.

46. “Victory Is Hailed by Italians Here,” New York Times (June 14, 1936), 35.

47. Nunzio Pernicone, “Italian Immigrant Radicalism in New York,” in The Italians of New York: Five Centuries of Struggle and Achievement, ed. Philip V. Cannistraro (New York: John D. Calandra Italian American Institute and New York Historical Society, 1999), 88.

48. Vincenzo Frazzetta as quoted in Rudolph J. Vecoli, “Italian Americans and Race: To Be or Not To Be,” in ‘Merica, ed. Aldo Bove and Giuseppe Massara (Stony Brook, NY: Forum Italicum, 2006), 101.

49. “Movimento di fondi pro Croce Rossa,” Il Popolo Italiano (January 31, 1936), 1; “Lista di sottoscrizione per la Croce Rossa,” La Libera Parola (April 25, 1936), 2; “Pro Croce Rossa Italiana,” Italian Echo (July 24, 1936), 1; Senate, California Legislature, 55th Session, Report of the Joint Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities (Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1943), 286; Nadia Venturini, Neri e italiani a Harlem: Gli anni Trenta e la guerra d'Etiopia (Rome: Edizioni Lavoro, 1990), 137–38.

50. Fiorello B. Ventresco, “The Struggle of the Italian Anti-Fascist Movement in America (Spanish Civil War to World War II),” Ethnic Forum 6 (1986), 20–21.

52. John Milazzo, “La locale 89,” Il Progresso Italo-Americano (November 25, 1935), 6.

51. Ventresco, “The Struggle of the Italian Anti-Fascist Movement,” 22–23.

53. Philip V. Cannistraro, “Luigi Antonini and the Italian Anti-Fascist Movement in the United States, 1940–1943,” Journal of American Ethnic History 5 (Fall 1985), 26.

54. Santo Farina, letter to the editor, La Stampa Libera (May 19, 1936), 6. Farina's letter was a rejoinder to Un ennese, “Si sono ubriacati tutti,” La Stampa Libera (May 14, 1936), 6.

55. “La maledizione del patriottismo,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (November 16, 1935), 1.

56. “Intervista con Antonini,” Giustizia 18 (November 1935), 18. This piece reproduced Antonini's interview with Il Nuovo Avanti, an Italian-language anti-Fascist newspaper published in Paris.

57. “Ma cos’è questa patria?,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (February 29, 1936), 1.

58. Tito Nunzio, Perché la guerra in Africa (New York: Unità, 1935). See also Eric Salerno, Rossi a Manhattan (Rome: Quiritta, 2001), 53–54; Amelia Paparazzo, “Il contributo degli emigrati calabresi alle lotte operaie degli Stati Uniti,” in Amelia Paparazzo et. al., Calabresi sovversivi nel mondo: L'esodo, l'impegno politico, le lotte degli emigrati in terra straniera (1880–1940) (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2004), 38–39.

59. “La ‘vittoria’ fascista in Africa non ha onorato l'Italia,” La Stampa Libera (May 19, 1936), 6.

60. Gaspare Nicotri, “Per l'Italia o per l'impero?,” La Stampa Libera (May 24, 1936), 6.

61. “Viva l'Italia, ma abbasso la Guerra!,” Giustizia 18 (December 1935), 18–19.

62. Giuseppe Bunone, “Per la verità,” Giustizia 19 (January 1936), 8; “La propaganda di una ‘Dama’ fascista,” La Stampa Libera (June 4, 1936), 6.

63. Louis Verna to Ralph Borrelli, Philadelphia, May 16, 1936, Ralph Borrelli Papers, box 2, Balch Institute Collection, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

64. Caroline F. Ware, “Cultural Groups in the United States,” in The Cultural Approach to History, ed. Caroline F. Ware (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), 63.

65. Max Ascoli, “On the Italian Americans,” Common Ground 3 (Autumn 1942), 46.

66. “Cronache Sovversive,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (May 13, 1933), 2; “Il ‘Ras’ di Ferrara,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (May 27, 1933), 4–5; “Il ‘Ras’ di Ferrara,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (June 17, 1933), 2–3; “L'assassino,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (July 15, 1933), 1. For Balbo's flight and its repercussions in the United States, see Giordano Bruno Guerri, Italo Balbo (Milan: Garzanti, 1984), 251–66; Claudio G. Segre, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 230–65; Ludovico Incisa di Camerana, Il grande esodo: Storia delle migrazioni italiane nel mondo (Milan: Corbaccio, 2003), 246–47.

67. A. Silvestri, “Corrispondenze,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (December 21, 1935), 7; Un senigalliese, “Corrispondenze,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (February 22, 1936), 7; “Gli italiani degeneri di Old Forge, Pa. celebrano la vittoria fascista in Etiopia,” La Stampa Libera (June 11, 1936), 6; Donato Carrello, “Bartone minaccia,” La Stampa Libera (July 3, 1936), 6. For Il Martello, see Adriana Dadà, “Martello,” in Bettini, Bibliografia dell'anarchismo, 198–205.

68. “Un operaio antifascista aggredito dagli ‘amici’ di Salv. Bartone,” La Stampa Libera (June 19, 1936), 2.

69. “Auguri di buon viaggio al Sig. Salvatore Bartone,” Il Progresso Italo-Americano (July 6, 1936), 5; “Gli ufficiali della Locale 63, A.C.W. augurano ‘buon viaggio’ al fascista Bartone,” La Stampa Libera (July 7, 1936), 2.

70. Minutes of the Executive Board, Italian Cloak, Suit and Skirt Makers' Union, Local 48, ILGWU, March 19, 1936, reel 2.

71. Uno dei presenti, “Corrispondenze,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (November 9, 1935), 8.

72. Gerald Meyer, Vito Marcantonio: Radical Politician, 1902–1954 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 119, 246.

73. Thomas Kessner, Fiorello H. La Guardia and the Making of Modern New York (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989), 404.

74. “Vibrante celebrazione d'italianità al Madison Sq. Garden,” Il Progresso Italo-Americano (December 15, 1935), 2; For Sirovich, see “Sirovich, William I.,” in Jews in American Politics, ed. L. Sandy Maisel (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), 421.

75. Umberto Ferrari, “Un richiamo agli amministratori della Casa del Popolo di Phila, Pa.,” La Stampa Libera (May 19, 1936), 6.

76. Aaron Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy (New York: Routledge, 2002), 50–99.

77. Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and Their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885–1985 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).

78. Noi, “Corrispondenze,” L'Adunata dei Refrattari (April 4, 1936), 7–8.

79. Gus Tyler, Look for the Union Label: A History of the ILGWU (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), 256.

80. “Contro l'odio di razza! Pace e tolleranza!,” Giustizia 21 (October 1938), 1–2.

81. “Movimento nella Cloakmakers' Union di N.Y.,” Giustizia 21 (November 1938), 2.

82. Agnes Maybeth McRoberts, “Attitudes and Family Situations of Thirty Works Progress Administration Employees, 1938” (M.A. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1938), 31–34; Trout, Boston, 191; Richard N. Juliani, The Social Organization of Immigration: The Italians in Philadelphia (New York: Arno Press, 1980), 185–87.

83. Bayor, Neighbors in Conflict, 85.

84. Libro ricordo del XXV anniversario della unione dei cloakmakers italiani (New York: International Newspaper Printing Co., 1941), 74–76, 79.

85. John P. Diggins, Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972); Pellegrino Nazzaro, “Il manifesto dell'Alleanza Anti-Fascista del Nord America,” Affari Sociali Internazionali 2 (June 1974), 171–85; Fiorello B. Ventresco, “Crisis and Unity: The Italian Radicals in America in the 1920s,” Ethnic Forum 15 (1995), 17–29.

86. Pietro Riccobaldi, Straniero indesiderabile (Milan: Rosellina Archinto, 1988), 114–16.

87. Jennifer Guglielmo, “Italian American Women's Political Activism in New York City, 1890s-1940s,” in The Italians of New York, 110–11.

88. Fraser Otanelli, “Anti-Facism and the Shaping of National and Ethnic Identity: Italian American Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War,” Journal of American Ethnic History 27 (Fall 2007), 9–31.

89. Bénédicte Deschamps, “Il Lavoro, the Italian Voice of the Amalgamated, 1915–1932,” Italian American Review 8 (Spring–Summer 2001), 103–110; Deschamps, “Giustizia,” 78–81.