African refugee resettlement in the US: the role and significance of voluntary agencies

Abstract

Voluntary agencies (VOLAGs) have long played a major role in US immigration, acting as intermediaries between government and individuals. This research demonstrates how VOLAGs impact the migration patterns of African refugees directly and indirectly, changing the urban geography of the foreign-born. They play a key role throughout the resettlement process through the determination of resettlement locations; and through the facilitation of monetary, case management, health, education, and career placement services. Together with local social networks, and employment or educational organizations, they can enhance the likelihood that refugee in-migrations succeed. They may also indirectly play a role by compensating for a lack of social networks or economic assistance. Conversely, ineffective VOLAG support can substantially delay the ability of new refugees to effectively integrate into local communities. Communities that don't have strong systems of VOLAGs may see refugees migrating away from their communities to locales where they can receive this assistance from either VOLAGs; or from family, friends, or an ethnic community. In this research two mid-sized communities – Columbus, Ohio and Providence, Rhode Island – clarify these issues, highlighting strengths and limitations of these forms of resettlement assistance.

Keywords:

• Africa
• migration
• refugees
• resettlement
• United States
• VOLAGs

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Lawrence Brown, Edward Malecki, and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions and comments on earlier versions of this paper; and the Kirwan Institute at The Ohio State University for providing funding for this project.

Notes

1. Numbers are down significantly from previous years. In 2004, there were 13,331 arrivals from Somalia, 7,140 from Liberia, 3,500 from Sudan, and 2,710 from Ethiopia (USCIS 2005).

2. See Singer and Wilson (2006) for more detailed information on refugee resettlement patterns to US metropolitan areas.

3. The Reception and Placement (R&P) Grant is given by the State Department to VOLAGs, who are expected to provide the following services to refugees approved for resettlement: sponsorship; pre-arrival resettlement planning; reception upon arrival; basic needs support for at least 30 days, including housing, furnishings, food, and clothing; community orientation; referral to social service providers; and case management for 90–180 days (Patrick 2004). Refugees who meet the income and resource eligibility standards of the TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI), but are not otherwise eligible (such as single individuals and childless couples) may receive benefits under the special Refugee Cash Assistance (RCA) and Refugee Medical Assistance (RMA) programs. Eligibility for these special programs is restricted to the first eight months in the US. Social service monies are used to provide intensive services to help refugees obtain employment and achieve economic self-sufficiency and social adaptation as quickly as possible (when dispersing monies they take into consideration the number of refugees in each state). The targeted assistance program funds employment and other services for refugees and entrants who reside in local areas of high need (areas with unusually large refugee and entrant populations, high refugee or entrant concentrations in relation to the overall population, or high use of public assistance). There are also a variety of other grants available from the federal government – Matching Grants (money goes to the ten national VOLAGs, and they distribute it), Wilson/Fish Grants, Microenterprise Development Grants, the individual development account programs, and community family strengthening grants (USDHHS 2001).

4. The Refugee Act of 1980 requires that representatives from the Executive branch and Congress consult annually to determine refugee admission numbers. Input is also solicited from state and local officials, as well as NGOs. With the help of congress, and justified by humanitarian concerns, the Executive branch (through the US Department of State) proposes nationalities and groups to be highlighted for resettlement, and numerical ceilings for refugee admissions for the fiscal year. The numbers established are ceilings, not quotas, and do not necessarily have to be met during the year. Until the Presidential Determination is issued, there is no authority to admit refugees into the US And, changes in the ceilings may be made during the year, either regionally or overall. In recent years annual admissions levels have been set at 80,000 persons (Refugee Council USA 2009).

5. Somali Bantu are ethnically and culturally distinct from the Somali nomads and the coastal people, who generally look down on agriculture and value a tribal lineage system that does not include the Bantu. Further, the Bantu people's Negroid physical features are distinct from that of Somali nomads and give them a unique identity – e.g., kinky hair for the Bantu, and soft hair for the non-Bantu. The Somali Bantu are made up of three distinct groups: 1) those who are indigenous to Somalia; 2) those who were brought to Somalia as slaves from Bantu-speaking tribes, but are integrated into Somali Society; and 3) those who were brought to Somalia as slaves but have maintained, to varying degrees, their ancestral culture, Bantu languages, and sense of southeast African identity. It is the last group that has particularly suffered persecution, and has been viewed and treated as foreigners in Somalia. Further, it is this group that has particularly been targeted with persecution, and is in most need of protection through resettlement (van Lehman and Eno 2002).

6. Massey et al. (1993), have applied institutional theory to immigration, implying a role of VOLAGs in migration patterns, but not directly addressing their influences.

7. Minnesota has a larger proportion of African refugees (13% of the foreign-born) than the rest of the US (where Africans constitute 3% of the foreign-born) (Fenelly 2005).

8. Asylees are individuals who, on their own, travel to the United States and apply for/receive a grant of asylum. They may enter as students, tourists, businessmen, or even in undocumented status. Once in the US, they apply to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for asylum, a status that will acknowledge that they meet the definition of a refugee and that will allow them to remain in the United States (USDHHS 2007).

9. Prior to each interview, the participant signed a consent form; or, if s/he did not speak English, gave oral consent through an interpreter (which was approved by the institutional review board) to participate in the interview.

10. VR1 noted that the Bantus were denied refuge to countries previously because of “political reasons”, the details of which she could not remember.

11. In contrast to other refugees initially resettled in Columbus (who remained in Columbus), after living in Columbus for some time, C21's family moved to Atlanta and then chose to come back to Columbus at a later date.

12. That a majority of the sample were secondary migrants is consistent with ORR data. According to this data, between 1983 and 2003, the state of Ohio received 1,278 primary migrants from Somalia. Further, between 2000 and 2005, 4,519 refugees (of all origin countries, though it is likely that a majority of these were Somalis) arrived in Ohio from other US states, while only 694 left.

13. That practically all of the participants were primary migrants is consistent with ORR data. According to this data, between 1983 and 2003, the state of Rhode Island received 1,026 primary migrants from Liberia. Further, between 2000 and 2005, only 162 refugees (of all origin countries) arrived in Rhode Island from other US states, while 172 left.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Tamar E. Mott

Tamar Mott is the Assessment Coordinator at the Schoenbaum Family Center and Lecturer at the Department of Geography at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA