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Abstract
The well-cistern of the Iberian Fortress of Vilars (Catalonia, Spain) is a monumental feature dating to the late fifth century BCE (Vilars, phases III-IV). Management of water resources is key to interpreting the nature of the fortress, as water was essential not only for human and livestock consumption, but for irrigation, construction, and crafts. Moreover, water was integral to the site in both times of peace and war, as the structures that guaranteed provision and management coincide with facets of military architecture (moat). Yet, why was the well-cistern backfilled with animal remains and other archaeological material only a few years after its construction? To answer this and other questions, this study follows two main lines of research. Firstly, analyses were carried out on the archaeozoological remains collected inside the feature so as to interpret and characterise the nature of the assemblage. Secondly, taphonomic analyses (macro- and microscopic) were undertaken so as to reconstruct the dynamics of accumulation and the premature abandonment of the well-cistern’s primary function: supplying potable water. The results suggest that the abandonment of the well-cistern might be due in part to a drop of the groundwater level during a period of drought.
Notes
1. The atmospheric alterations suffered by the bones prior to their deposition fall into the general category of ‘weathering’.
2. Human and animal trampling can produce marks on bones. An area of great concern with respect to bones recovered on archaeological sites is the similarity of trampling marks to butchery marks. It is essential, then, to distinguish the characteristics of each either in terms of groove morphology, patterning and distribution of traces, or associations with other types of surface modifications (like polishing) in order to separate trampled bones from cut bones.
3. We would like to acknowledge of Marcos Rosado's for the technical work in the Servei de Microscòpia. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Campus de la UAB. Bellaterra (Barcelona, Spain). http://sm.uab.cat.
4. The samples were selected according to their context and the macroscopic appearance (colour and concretions) of their cortex. This study therefore is a first test whose results will lead to condition further analysis.
5. Only determined to anatomical level.
6. The number of pondered remains (NRp) is equivalent to the « quantité spécifique » (Qsp) (Poplin Citation1976a, Citationb). The NRp is calculated by dividing the number of remains of each bone present (by species) in the studied set by the number of this anatomical element in the skeleton of the animal. For example, if there are NR = 100 ribs of sheep finds, then this number will be divided by 26 (the total amount of ribs in this species) to attain the NRp. If the finds are radiuses, then the NR is divided by two, and if they are lumbar vertebras, they are divided by six, and so forth. The formula is then: NR of the anatomical element/number of this type of bone in the skeleton.
7. The index is higher in the well-cistern (65.8%) than in the ramp (47.4%). The same tendency is noted for the NRindet with 15.6% in the well-cistern and 6.5% in the ramp.
8. It is noteworthy that these proportions contrast with the small number of finds (422) from the other settlement features and the street of Vilars III-IV phases (caprines 80%, suidae 19% and bovines 11%). In fact, since 80% of the Vilars III structures were destroyed by modern agricultural workings, the portrait of the fauna (apart from that of the well-cistern) is very incomplete.
9. It is noteworthy that manganese always reduces to higher Eh values than the iron meaning that when the soil is moist, manganese will be the first to mobilise, whereas in conditions of desiccation it will be the last. It is therefore the most changeable element. This is illustrated in Figure where the possible variations of the Eh values are represented in the case of a soil subject to two different changes in humidity with a brief hydromorphism (blue line) compared to a more intense hydromorphism (yellow line).
10. pH is a value that indicates whether a product or material is acidic (pH < 7), alcaline (pH > 7) or neutral (pH = 7).
11. Calcareous concretions were determined by hydrochloric acid (HCl) tests carried out by the restoration laboratory of the University of Lleida. Yet these tests only revealed the presence of limestone particles and further analyses are needed to determine other potential components.
12. Magnesium is not isolated in its natural state, but forrms part of many compounds, mostly oxides and salts. It is an insoluble element that responds to hydrochloric acid and therefore reacts when tested on the calcareous concretions.
13. After calcium and phosphorus, potassium is the most common mineral in most living beings such as cereals, meat, vegetables, fruits and legumes.
14. The most important sodium salts in nature are sodium chloride (rock salt), sodium carbonate (soda and trona), borate sodium (borax), sodium nitrate and sodium sulphate. Sodium salts are found in seawater, salt lakes, alkaline lakes and mineral springs.
15. Hidromorphia is a state of permanent or temporary water soil saturation resulting in reducing conditions that have significant effects on soil.
16. A physicochemical analysis of the current water table in contact with the archaeological sediments of the structure was carried out at Salut Publica laboratory of the Health Department of the city of Lleida (Generalitat de Catalunya) to determine its pH so as to rule out potential nitrate or sulphate contamination of the archaeological samples that would have influenced the physicochemical analyses of the bone assemblages as they were permanently under the water.
17. The exact depth and position of the columns of sediment samples collected in the well-cistern are not published.