Immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: molecular and cellular mechanisms and new immunotherapeutic approaches

Abstract

Background

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating autoimmune disease with increasing global prevalence. It predominantly affects females, especially those of European descent. The interplay between environmental factors and genetic predisposition plays a crucial role in MS etiopathogenesis.

Methods

We searched recent relevant literature on reputable databases, which include, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect using the following keywords: multiple sclerosis, pathogenesis, autoimmunity, demyelination, therapy, and immunotherapy.

Results

Various animal models have been employed to investigate the MS etiopathogenesis and therapeutics. Autoreactive T cells within the CNS recruit myeloid cells through chemokine expression, leading to the secretion of inflammatory cytokines driving the MS pathogenesis, resulting in demyelination, gliosis, and axonal loss. Key players include T cell lymphocytes (CD4+ and CD8+), B cells, and neutrophils. Signaling dysregulation in inflammatory pathways and the immunogenetic basis of MS are essential considerations for any successful therapy to MS. Data indicates that B cells and neutrophils also have significant roles in MS, despite the common belief that T cells are essential. High neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios correlate with MS severity, indicating their contribution to disease progression. Dysregulated signaling pathways further exacerbate MS progression.

Conclusion

MS remains incurable, but disease-modifying therapies, monoclonal antibodies, and immunomodulatory drugs offer hope for patients. Research on the immunogenetics and immunoregulatory functions of gut microbiota is continuing to provide light on possible treatment avenues. Understanding the complex interplay between genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and immune dysregulation is critical for developing effective treatments for MS.

Keywords:

• Multiple sclerosis
• pathogenesis
• autoimmunity
• demyelination
• therapy
• microbiota

Authors contribution

Conceptualization: GA, RY & MA

Literature search: MA, GA, FTZ, AC, & FH

Drawing figures: MA

Tables design: FH

Writing - original draft: FTZ AC, & FH

Writing - review & editing: MA, GA, RY, FTZ, AC, FH, SM, & MS

Supervision: GA & MA

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.