The Historical and Cultural Identity of Taekwondo as a Traditional Korean Martial Art

Abstract

Taekwondo's cultural identity is considered in the light of the controversy over its historical origins. After reviewing several existing theories, the meaning and development of taekwondo as a Korean martial art is explored. There are two conclusions: first, taekwondo is a fusion of several different sources; second, taekwondo is essentially a martial art that focuses on foot skills, and this distinguishes it from Japan's karate and China's wushu, which are primarily based on hand skills. The fact that all terms are rendered into pure Korean words shows the essence of Korean localization. Thus taekwondo incorporates a distinct identity as a Korean martial art.

Notes

[1] ‘Karate’ is a Japanese word rendered as gong soo do in Korean, and both words basically have the same meaning. In this article only the term ‘karate’ is used. Also, the Korean word Tang Soo Do, literally Tang Hand, is the word for karate in Okinawa.

[2] Kang, ‘The Study of Modern Taekwondo's Identity’, 4.

[3] Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo, 29.

[4] The term ‘Subak’ is seen first in China's Book of Han, Yiwenzhi, chapter byungseobu, byunggigyo, where a book on martial arts called ‘Subak six parts’ is introduced, and can also be seen in the records from year Janggong 12 (Spring and Autumn Annals), vol. 8. ‘The Commentary of Gongyang’, a book from the Eastern Zhou dynasty (768–662 bce), specifically says ‘Jangman, a subject of Gungong, was offended and so twisted Mingong's neck with Subak’. A description of Subak in Chinese documents appears limited to the Qin, Han, and Song dynasties. It is explained in Lim Baek Won's ‘Ancient History of Chinese Physical Education’ how Subak was addressed and how it changed in China. In Korean documents, books on Goryeo such as ‘Goryeo History’ and ‘Goryeo History Jeolyo’ and Siloks of the early Chosun dynasty, and many books ever since those mentions Subak, including Jaemulbo (1798). Given that Koreans and Chinese have interacted in many cultural ways, it is possible that Koreans imported the term from China, but it is the standard view to think that Chinese Subak and Korean Subak are completely different.

[5] Kim and Gwack, ‘A Study for the Philosophical Thesis of Taekwondo Spirits’; Kim and Kim, ‘The Historical Comparative of Korean Taekwondo and Japanese Karate’; Kim and Choi, ‘A Comparative Study on the Old History of Taekkyon and Taekwondo’; Korea Taekwondo Association, Taekwondo Textbook.

[6] Jeong, Principles of Taekkyeon, 65.

[7] ‘Ryukyu Islands', Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009.

[8] Kerr, Okinawa; Lebra, Okinawa Religion, as cited by Tan, ‘Constructing a Martial Tradition’.

[9] Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo, 101.

[10] Draeger and Smith, Asian Fighting Arts.

[11] Haines, Karate History and Traditions.

[12] Tan, ‘Constructing a Martial Tradition’.

[13] Tak, Identity of Korea, 103–17.

[14] Choi, Taekwondo and Me, vol. 1, 343.

[15]Taek-kkyeon: another expression of taekkyeon. In Jaemulbo (Lee, 1798) or Haedong Jukji (Choi, 1925) it is shown as takkyeon, in Ahn, Heroic Stories of Chosun Warriors, as taekkyeon; in Korea Games (Culin, 1895) as taekkyeon-hagi (literally doing taekkyeon); in Kim Taek-soo's (1935‘Bak Taryeong’[Five Comprehensive Songs] as chakkyeon, and in Grand Dictionary of Our Language (1938 as gyeollyeon-taekkyeon. After being proclaimed No. 76 of Important Intangible Cultural Properties in June 1983 as ‘taekkyeon’, the various names were unified. Now taekkyeon organizations have branched out into the Preservation of Original Korean Taekgyeon Association, the Korea Taekkyon Association, the Kyulun Taekkyun Association and the Korean Traditional Taekkyeon Association among others, and these organizations are in a struggle for leadership.

[16] Choi, Taekwondo and Me, vol. 1, 36 and 347.

[17] Lee, Taekwondo's Yesterday and Today, 43.

[18] Hwang, Subak-do Encyclopaedia, 47.

[19] Kwon, ‘Originator of Taekwondo Driven Out by his Country’.

[20] Yang, ‘A Study on the Development Process of Modern Korean Taekwondo’; Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo; Kang, ‘The Study of Modern Taekwondo's Identity’.

[21] Hwang, Subak-do Encyclopaedia, 9.

[22] Kang and Lee, The History of Our Taekwondo, 40.

[23] Ibid., 34–53.

[24] Heo, History of Our Martial Arts Customs From Old Paintings, 245.

[25] Choi, Haedongjukji.

[26] Ibid. See also Jaemulbo: Manmulbo by M.Y. Lee.

[27] Ahn, Heroic Stories of Chosun Warriors.

[28] Yang, ‘A Study on the Development Process of Modern Korean Taekwondo’.

[29] Yang, ‘A Study on the Development Process of Modern Korean Taekwondo'; Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo, 65–70; Song, Lecture on Taekwondo's History; Kang, ‘The Study of Modern Taekwondo's Identity-Focused on the History and Culture of Korean Martial Arts'.

[30] Ohya, Ways to Learn Karate; Kanken, Karate.

[31] Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo, 70.

[32] Kang, ‘The Study of Modern Taekwondo's Identity’, 68.

[33] Ibid., 67.

[34] Song, Lecture on Taekwondo's History, 215.

[35] Lee, Modern Taekwondo History and New Controversies, 95.

[36] Kukkiwon , Kuk-Ki Taekwondo Textbook (rev. edn).

[37] Jo, ‘Research of Taekwondo History’, 1–3; Chung, Korean Taekwondo History; ‘A Study of Taekwon (Subak) in the Koryo Dynasty, 21–8.

[38] Na, ‘The Study of the History of Korean Physical Education’.

[39] Kim and Kim, ‘The Historical Comparative of Korean Taekwondo and Japanese Karate’.

[40] Yang, ‘A Study on the Development Process of Modern Korean Taekwondo’.

[41] Jeong, Principles of Taekkyeon, 64.

[42] Jo, Searching for Korean Thoughts, 275.

[43] Tak, Identity of Korea, 86.

[44] Ricoeur, Soi-même comme un autre, 167–75; Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity, 186–98.

[45] Ibid.

[46] Lee, Modern Taekwondo History and New Controversies, 113.

[47]Samguk Sagi[‘Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms’], the first history book to be written by officials, was edited by Kim Bu-sik along with 11 scholars, focusing on the political rise and fall of Silla, Goguryeo and Baekje in 1125 (Goryeo period), commissioned by King Injong. This work comprises nine books, 50 volumes. This book is regarded as the most valuable history book for carrying out research into Korean history, including the unified Silla period.

[48]Samguk Yusa[‘Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms’] is a history book edited by the high Buddhist monk Ilyeon in 1281 (late Goryeo). Three volumes (volumes 3–5) were handed down, collectively as one book, consisting of 107 chapters and proclaimed a national treasure. Many translations are available.

[49] Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo.

[50] Kang, ‘The Study of Modern Taekwondo's Identity’.

[51] Kim, Korean Traditional Martial Art of Physical Education's Philosophy, 255.