https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2336-7617
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Abstract
There has been considerable academic interest in what has been variously labelled new, lifestyle or, as used here, technology-first sport. This category of participatory sport covers a wide range of activities – among them windsurfing. Like some other sports initially relying on the development of technological equipment, it spread across the world from California. Technology-first sport is positioned as a useful lens, and this is applied to windsurfing showing the value of exploring a sport’s development from this perspective. Distinctive elements of windsurfing’s early history are explored that relate to its rapid growth being intimately linked to technological evolution, intellectual property battles and globalisation processes. The genesis of the sport is contextualised in terms of favourable Californian circumstances and the trajectory of the American plastics industry at the time. Its diffusion across 1970s Europe featured intense technological and market competition which created a rapid evolution of the sport before consolidation. Distinct periods of evolution from 1970 to 1990 are evaluated. These include diffusion processes and the influence of national socio-political factors as it spread to Eastern Europe and to China. A final reflection of the present-day technology fragmentation of windsurfing further reinforces how use of a technology-first sport lens has value.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Jason Potts and Stuart Thomas, ‘Toward a New (Evolutionary) Economics of Sports’, Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, 8, no.1 (2018): 82–96.
2 Ibid.
3 The sportization term for this process is used later in the paper.
4 Belinda Wheaton and Holly Thorpe, Action Sports and the Olympic Games: Past, Present, Future (Abingdon: Routledge, 2021).
5 Ibid., 5.
6 Roslyn Kerr, Sport and Technology: An Actor-Network Theory Perspective (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016).
7 Ibid., 3.
8 Frédéric Savre, Jean Saint-Martin, and Thierry Terret, ‘From Marin County’s Seventies Clunker to the Durango World Championship 1990: A History of Mountain Biking in the USA’, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 27, no.11 (2010): 1942–67.
9 Sonali Shah, ‘From Innovation to Firm Formation: Contributions by Sports Enthusiasts to the Windsurfing, Snowboarding & Skateboarding Industries’, The Engineering of Sport 6, Vol 3: Developments for Innovation (2006): 29–34.
10 Tim Dant and Belinda Wheaton, ‘Windsurfing: An Extreme form of Material and Embodied Interaction?’, Anthropology Today 23, no. 6 (2007): 8–12.
11 Ibid.
12 Belinda Wheaton, ‘Introducing the Consumption and Representation of Lifestyle Sports’, Sport in Society 13, no. 7–8 (2010): 1057–81.
13 Nigel Hacking, Boardsailing – Yachting’s New Olympic Event (Los Angeles: LA84 Foundation,1983), https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/8028600/boardsailing-la84-foundation (accessed April 23, 2023).
14 Potts and Thomas, ‘Towards a New Economics of Sports’.
15 Wheaton, ‘Introducing Consumption of Lifestyle Sports’.
16 See Toby C. Rider, Matthew P. Llewellyn, and John T. Gleaves, ‘Sun, Surf, and Toned Bodies: California’s Impact on the History of Sport and Leisure’, Journal of Sport History 46, no. 1 (2019): 1–4. Also, Tolga Ozyurtcu, ‘Living the Dream: southern California and Origins of Lifestyle Sport’, 46, no.1 (2019): 20–35.
17 ‘Here She Is, the True Love Boat’, Sports Illustrated, September 20, 1982, https://vault.si.com/vault/1982/09/20/here-she-is-the-true-love-boat (accessed April 23, 2023).
18 Lord Justice Oliver, Court of Appeal, Judgement: Windsurfing International Inc. v Tabur Marine (Great Britain) Ltd, January 31, 1984, London: Royal Courts of Justice, https://vlex.co.uk/vid/windsurfing-international-inc-v-792781809 (accessed April 23, 2023).
19 Newman Darby, ‘Sailboarding: Exciting New Water Sport’, Popular Science 187, no. 2 (1965):138–41.
20 ‘Guide to the Newman Darby Windsurfing Collection’, Smithsonian Archives Center, National Museum of American History, https://sova.si.edu/record/NMAH.AC.0625?s=0&n=10&t=C&q=Sports–1950-2000&i = 7
21 James Drake, ‘Windsurfing a New Concept in Sailing’, document no. P-4076 (1969), Rand Corporation, https://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P4076.html (accessed April 23, 2023).
22 This term draws on the book of the same name. Jeffery Meikle, American Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid. 1.
25 Susan Freinkel, Plastics: A Toxic Love Story (New York: Henry Holt, 2011), 4.
26 Meikle, American Plastic.
27 Ibid., 189.
28 Chris Gibson and Andrew Warren, ‘Making Surfboards: Emergence of a Trans-Pacific Cultural Industry’, The Journal of Pacific History 49, no. 1 (2014): 1–25.
29 John Chao, ‘Origins of Windsurfing: Hoyle Schweitzer’, American Windsurf Magazine 4, no. 4 (1996): 50.
30 John Chao, ‘Origins of Windsurfing: Jim Drake’, American Windsurf Magazine 4, no. 4 (1996), https://www.americanwindsurfer.com/articles/origins-of-windsurfing-jim-drake/ (accessed April 23, 2023).
31 Drew Kampion, ‘The Varieties of Life in the Wind’, Windsurf: The International Boardsailing Magazine 12, no. 4 (1982): 30.
32 Ibid.
33 Savre et al., ‘History of Mountain Biking in the USA’.
34 For example, see these historical accounts. Paul MacAuthur, ‘Snowboarding: Its Older Than You Think’, International Skiing History Association, December 1, 2016, https://www.skiinghistory.org/news/snowboarding-it%E2%80%99s-older-you-think, and Becky Beal, Skateboarding: The Ultimate Guide (Santa-Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2013).
35 Michel Desbordes, ‘Empirical Analysis of the Innovation Phenomena in the Sports Equipment Industry’, Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 14, no. 4 (2002): 481–98.
36 The Original Windsurfer, Timeline: 1970 [online] https://web.archive.org/web/20160812054715/http://www.originalwindsurfer.com/site/main_1970.html (accessed April 23, 2023).
37 One of the main starting points in this literature is Rogers, 1962 original work where stages of diffusion were presented, with innovators and early adopters being the first two stages. Here, an updated retrospective article is cited. Everett M Rogers, ‘A prospective and Retrospective Look at the Diffusion Model’, Journal of Health Communication 9, no. S1 (2004): 13–19.
38 Kampion, ‘The Varieties of Life in the Wind’.
39 Belinda Wheaton, ‘Selling Out?: The Commercialisation and Globalisation of Lifestyle Sport’, in The Global Politics of Sport (Abingdon: Routledge, 2004), 127–46.
40 Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
41 Diane Schweitzer, ‘Windsurfing News’, Windsurfing International Dealer Newsletter, April 15, 1971.
42 George Neilson, ‘Surfing without Waves: A New Sport Sets Sail on Boards Made of Alathon Polyethylene Resin’, DuPont Magazine 65, no. 4, July–August (1971): 5–8. https://digital.hagley.org/1971_65_04?solr_nav%5Bid%5D=8f2f8331aaa325d5a16a&solr_nav%5Bpage%5D=0&solr_nav%5Boffset%5D=3#page/1/mode/2up.
43 For example, the Dupont Magazine is cited in both these articles: ‘10 jahre windsurfing in Europa: Martin Spanjer im surf-interview’ [German], Surf Magazin 5, 1982: 86. ‘10 Jahre Windsurfen in Deutschland: Callle Smidt, die erste Surferin des Landes’ [German], Surf Magazin 5, 1982: 88.
44 Neilson, ‘Surfing without waves’, 1 (Front cover: caption).
45 ‘30 Jahr Surf Magazin’ [German], Surf Magazin 5, 2007: 27, https://www.syltsurfing.de/downloads/callesurfmagazin.pdf.
46 ‘Les Debuts des Windsurfer en France’ Windsurfing International Magazine 1 (1976): 4.
47 The original windsurfer, Timeline: 1972 [online] https://web.archive.org/web/20160812054715/http://www.originalwindsurfer.com/site/main_1972.html (accessed April 23, 2023).
48 ‘10 jahre windsurfing in Europa: Martin Spanjer im surf-interview’ [German], Surf Magazin 5, 1982: 86.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
51 Appadurai, Modernity at Large.
52 Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations.
53 West and Seer, Hooked: Windsurfing’s Stories, 58.
54 Ibid., 167.
55 Hacking, Boardsailing – Yachting’s New Olympic Event.
56 Robert Marmis, ‘Hoyle Schweitzer’s Decade of Discontent’, INC Magazine, February 1, 1982, New York, NY, https://www.inc.com/magazine/19820201/2262.html (accessed April 23, 2023).
57 Potts and Thomas, ‘Toward a New Economics of Sports’.
58 Steven Klepper and Kenneth L. Simons, ‘Industry Shakeouts and Technological Change’, International Journal of Industrial Organization 23, no. 1–2 (2005): 23–43.
59 Desbordes, ‘Empirical Analysis of the Sports Equipment Industry’.
60 West and Seer, Hooked: Windsurfing’s Stories, 82–95.
61 Sonali Shah, ‘Sources and Patterns of Innovation in a Consumer Products Field: Innovations in Sporting Equipment’ Sloan Working Paper no. 4105, March (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2000), https://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/shahsportspaper.pdf
62 West and Seer, Hooked: Windsurfing’s Stories, 82–95.
63 ‘Wie aus ketten befrit’ [German] Surf Magazin 4, 2017: 4.
64 Ibid.
65 Jason Potts and Stuart Thomas, ‘The Curious Case for Media Monopoly in Technology-Driven Sports’, Media International Australia 155, no. 1 (2015): 144.
66 Drake later claimed that the TenCate European arrangements were taking place simultaneously to his fee negotiation with Schweitzer but without his knowledge. See Chao, ‘Origins of Windsurfing: Jim Drake’.
67 Prior Art is any evidence that an invention is already known. Prior art does not need to exist physically or be commercially available. It is enough that someone, somewhere, sometime previously has described or shown or made something that contains a use of technology that is very similar to an invention.
68 Lord Justice Oliver, Court of Appeal, Judgement: Windsurfing International Inc. v Tabur Marine (Great Britain) Ltd, January 31, 1984, London: Royal Courts of Justice, https://vlex.co.uk/vid/windsurfing-international-inc-v-792781809 (accessed April 23, 2023).
69 European Economic Community (EEC) Commission Decision, relating to a proceeding under Article 85 of the EEC Treaty (IV/29.395—Windsurfing International) EEC, July 11, 1983, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31983D0400&from=DE (accessed April 23, 2023).
70 Marmis, ‘Hoyle Schweitzer’s Discontent’.
71 Wheaton and Thorpe, Action Sports and the Olympic Games; Holly Thorpe and Belinda Wheaton, ‘Generation X Games’, Action Sports and the Olympic Movement: Understanding the Cultural Politics of Incorporation’, Sociology 45, no. 5 (2011): 830–47.
72 West and Seer, Hooked: Windsurfing’s Stories, 182–91.
73 Ibid.
74 ‘500 Metre Records’, World Sailing Speed Record Council (2023), https://www.sailspeedrecords.com/500-metre (accessed April 23, 2023).
75 Stuart Thomas and Jason Potts, ‘How Industry Competition Ruined Windsurfing’, Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 6, no. 5 (2016): 565–78.
76 Ibid.
77 Klepper and Simons, ‘Industry Shakeouts and Change’.
78 Jutta Braun, ‘The People’s Sport? Popular Sport and Fans in the Later Years of the German Democratic Republic’, German History 27, no. 3 (2009): 414–28.
79 Ibid., 420.
80 Ibid., 421.
81 Ibid., 427.
82 Tomáš Kvasnička, ‘Equipment and changing outdoor culture in the Czech Republic’, Anthropology of East Europe Review 25, no. 1 (2007): 54. 53–63.
83 Tomáš Muzejník, ‘Držet si vítr v zádech’[Czech] in Herbert Slavík (ed.), Naše léto, voda, lode: 161 (Praha: WWA Photo, 2021).
84 Ezermester [Hungarian], no. 7 (1975); Tekhnika Molodezhi [Russian], no. 7 (1977). The surfing image and ‘a new wave’ reference appeared in the Russian publication.
85 ‘Соревнование по виндсерфингу в Минске, Ленинграде и Москве’, Катера и яхты [Russian], no. 59 (1976), http://www.barque.ru/sport/1976/windsurfing_in_minsk_leningrad_moscow (accessed October 7, 2023).
86 Jinming Zheng, Shushu Chen, Tien-Chin Tan, abd Patrick Wing Chung Lau, ‘Sport Policy in China (Mainland)’, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 10, no. 3 (2018): 473.
87 Ibid.
88 Wang Li, Chinese Windsurfing from Scratch to the Road to the World Championship’ Sina Sports Comprehensive, October 8, 2019, https://sports.sina.com.cn/others/sailing/2019-10-08/doc-iicezuev0683628.shtml (accessed April 23, 2023).
89 ‘This Day, That Year’ China Daily, June 8 (2018), https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2018-06/08/content_36350087.htm (accessed April 23, 2023).
90 ‘Wang Li: Chinese’, Sina Sports Comprehensive.
91 Ben Oakley, ‘The Chinese Way’, Boards Magazine 33 (1986): 96–7.
92 Carlos Diaz Ruiz and Marian Makkar, ‘Market Bifurcations in Board Sports: How Consumers Shape Markets through Boundary Work’, Journal of Business Research 122 (2021): 38–50.
93 Ibid., 41.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Ben Oakley
Ben Oakley originally established the Sport and Fitness qualifications at the Open University in 2007, having previously lectured at Portsmouth and Southampton Solent universities. Formerly he worked as National Coach in windsurfing including attending two Olympic Games. His teaching expertise in online learning includes a distinctive approach to work-related study. This has been deployed in writing online content for a range of courses and platforms beyond the Open University for clients such as Sport England, FIFA and UNICEF. His academic research (1997–2003) originally focused on sport policy and in particular the development of elite sport systems in different countries. More recently his enquiry has focused on articles and publications on coach development (2019) and windsurfing evolution stories (2023). He has published six sole author or edited collection books. Ben has been an OU academic consultant for BBC sports related programmes and contributed articles to the BBC Sport website.