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Abstract
This study aims to address the relative lack of research examining the Canadian experience of terrorism relating to the “Global Salafi Jihad.” The fundamental research question was “What have people living in, or from, Canada been doing to support or advance violent jihad either at home or abroad?” Data were collected on individuals active from the 1980s through to the end of 2011 in an effort to be as exhaustive as possible. They were analysed according to three broad categories: background variables; operational variables; and investigations and outcomes. The sample was further divided into two and results compared according to whether individuals began offending before or after September 11, 2001, in order to assess change over time. The article begins with a brief history of terrorism in Canada, followed by the methodology, analysis of variables, and summary and conclusions. Cases included and excluded from the analysis are listed in Appendices A and B respectively.
Keywords:
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada for funding this research. I am also very grateful to all those who helped to facilitate this project, and all those who gave up their time to be interviewed.
Notes
Jeffrey Ian Ross, “Attributes of Domestic Political Terrorism in Canada, 1960–1985” Terrorism 11, no. 3 (1988): 213–233.
Judy Torrance, Public Violence in Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986) 32–35.
Ross (see note 1 above); Torrance (see note 2 above)..
Ross (see note 1 above).
John Gray, “How Trudeau Halted the Reign of Terror,” Globe and Mail, September 30, 2000, http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/series/trudeau/jgray2_sep30.html.
Jeffrey Ian Ross, “The Rise and Fall of Québecois Separatist Terrorism: A Qualitative Application of Factors from Two Models,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18 (1995): 285–297.
Stewart Bell, Cold Terror: How Canada Nurtures and Exports Terrorism Around the World (Mississauga, ON: Wiley, 2005), 21.
Ross (see note 1 above).
Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, Global Terrorism Database: Canada, http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=38.
See John Major, Air India Flight 182: A Canadian Tragedy, Volume One: The Overview (Ottawa, ON: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2010), http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2010/bcp-pco/CP32-89-4-2010-eng.pdf.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 3, 5.
See Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above).
See Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above); Michelle Shephard, Guantanamo's Child: The Untold Story of Omar Khadr (Mississauga, ON: Wiley, 2008).
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 174–177, 188; Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (see note 14 above), 28–34.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 179–182; Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 47–58.
“Security Council of Al-Qaida and Taliban Sanctions Committee Approves Deletion of One Entry from Consolidated List,” United Nations Security Council, April 22, 2010, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/sc9912.doc.htm; Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 28–34.
Michelle Shephard, “‘Khadr Effect’ Silences Canadians,” Toronto Star, January 12, 2007, http://www.thestar.com/News/article/170464.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 203–204; Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 84–85.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 205.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 133–160; Evan Kohlmann, Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2004), 185–216.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 133–160; Kohlmann (see note 21 above), 185–216.
United States v. Ahmed Ressam, Testimony of Jean-Louis Bruguière, United States District Court, Western District of Washington, Case No. CR-99-666-JC, April 2, 2001, http://nefafoundation.org/file/US_v_Ressam_IHHTestimony.pdf.
Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 159; “Passport Order Infringes Rights of Former Terrorist: Court,” CanWest News Service, March 13, 2008, http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=2d443a84-fb4d-45ba-8afd-f11cd6bf65d3&k=30863.
Hal Bernton, Mike Carter, David Heath, and James Neff, “The Terrorist Within: The Story Behind One Man's Holy War Against America,” Seattle Times, June 23–July 7, 2002, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/news/nation-world/terroristwithin/.
For example, see Robert Leiken and Steven Brooke, “The Quantitative Analysis of Terrorism and Immigration: An Initial Exploration,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18, no. 4 (2006): 503–521.
It is, however, prudent to note that Canadian counter-terrorism policy does not simply mimic that of the U.S., and there is divergence between them also. See Veronica Kitchen and Karthika Sasikumar, “Canada (En)Counters Terrorism: U.S.-Canada Relations and Counter-Terrorism Policy,” Terrorism and Political Violence 21, no. 1 (2009): 155–173; Reg Whitaker, “Keeping up with the Neighbours? Canadian Responses to 9/11 in Historical and Comparative Context,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 41, nos. 2–3 (2003): 241–265.
Kerry Pither, Dark Days: The Story of Four Canadians Tortured in the Name of Fighting Terror (Penguin: Toronto, ON, 2008), 30–46.
See “Security Certificates and Secret Evidence,” CBC News, December 14, 2009, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2009/08/21/f-security-certificates.html.
See “The Anti-Terrorism Act,” Department of Justice Canada, Updated September 4, 2009, http://www.justice.gc.ca/antiter/home-accueil-eng.asp.
See Securing an Open Society—One Year Later: Progress Report on the Implementation of Canada's National Security Policy (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2005), http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/docs/information/publications/secure/secure-eng.pdf.
Meagan Fitzpatrick, “Security Spending After 9/11 Tops $92B,” CBC News, September 7, 2011, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2011/09/07/pol-911-security-spending.html.
“Canada's Military Mission in Afghanistan: Training Role to Replace Combat Mission,” CBC News, May 10, 2011, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2009/02/10/f-afghanistan.html.
“Full Text ‘Bin Laden's Message,’ ” BBC News, November 12, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2455845.stm.
For details of alleged indirect participation see Richard Sanders, “Canada's Secret Complicity in the Iraq War,” CCPA Monitor, September 1, 2008, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1570653751.html.
Stewart Bell, “Al-Qaeda Says Canada Deserves Bombing,” National Post, May 15, 2004, http://forums.canadiancontent.net/canadian-politics/33648-al-qaeda-says-canada-deserves.html.
Alex Wilner, “Terrorism in Canada: Victims and Perpetrators,” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 12, no. 3 (2010): 72–99, 79.
“‘Airliners Plot': The Allegations,” BBC News, April 3, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7329221.stm.
Stewart Bell, The Martyr's Oath: The Apprenticeship of a Homegrown Terrorist (Mississauga, ON: Wiley, 2005).
R. v. Mohammad Momin Khawaja, Reasons for Judgement, 04-G30282 (Ontario Superior Court of Justice, October 29, 2008), http://nefafoundation.org/file/FeaturedDocs/Khawaja_ReasonsforJudgment.pdf.
“Al Qaeda Attack on Canada Probable: CSIS,” CTV News, May 10, 2006, http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20060509/terror_canada_060509/.
Ian Robertson, “Last of Toronto 18 Not Remorseful: Judge,” Toronto Sun, March 5, 2011, http://www.torontosun.com/news/torontoandgta/2011/03/04/17501251.html; Isabel Teotonio, “The Toronto 18,” Toronto Star, 2010, http://www3.thestar.com/static/toronto18/index.html.
Isabel Teotonio, “The Sting Operation,” Toronto Star, 2010, http://www3.thestar.com/static/toronto18/index.5.html.
R. v. Saad Gaya, ON SC DR(F) 2541/08 (Ontario Superior Court of Justice, May 20, 2008), http://nefafoundation.org/file/Maj_v_Gaya_reasonsforjudgmentmay08.pdf; Isabel Teotonio, “A Second Infiltrator,” Toronto Star, 2010, http://www3.thestar.com/static/toronto18/index.4.html.
“RCMP ‘A’ Division (AINSET) Lays Terrorism Charges,” Royal Canadian Mounted Police, August 26, 2010, http://nefafoundation.org/file/RCMP_MisbahuddinAhmedprarrest.pdf.
Sean Chase, “Army Base Bomb Plot Suspect Denied Bail,” QMI Agency, January 21, 2011, http://www.canadaka.net/link.php?id=66427.
Note that Essaghaier et al. are not included in the current sample as this study was completed in early 2012.
Focus Canada: The Pulse of Canadian Public Opinion: Report 2006–4 (Ottawa and Toronto: Environics Research Group, 2007), 116.
Madeleine Gruen, “Hizb ut-Tahrir Debuts in Canada,” Counterterrorism Blog, July 22, 2009, http://counterterrorismblog.org/2009/07/hizb_ut-tahrir_debuts_in_canad.php.
Stewart Bell, “Document: Islamist Extremists and the Promotion of a Parallel Society” National Post, November 15, 2010, http://news.nationalpost.com/2010/11/15/report-islamist-extremists-and-the-promotion-of-a-parallel-society/.
Brian Grim and Mehtab Karim, The Future of the Global Muslim Population: Projections for 2010–2030 (Washington DC: Pew Research Center, 2011), 20, http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulation-WebPDF-Feb10.pdf.
David Harris, Statement on Immigrant Integration, National Security and Public Safety to the Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, February 3, 2011, Ottawa, http://www.investigativeproject.org/documents/testimony/378.pdf.
“Domestic Terrorism,” Canadian Security Intelligence Service, February 25, 2011, http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/prrts/trrrsm/index-eng.asp.
“Harper Says ‘Islamicism’ Biggest Threat to Canada,” CBC News, September 6, 2011, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2011/09/06/harper-911-terrorism-islamic-interview.html.
Building Resilience Against Terrorism: Canada's Counter-Terrorism Strategy (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2012), http://www.scribd.com/doc/81112069/2012-cts-eng.
Notable contributions include: Jamie Bartlett, Jonathan Birdwell, and Michael King, The Edge of Violence: A Radical Approach to Extremism (London: Demos, 2010), http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Edge_of_Violence_-_web.pdf?1271346195; Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above); Clark McCauley, Christian Leuprecht, Todd Hataley, Conrad Winn, and Bidisha Biswas, “Tracking the War of Ideas: A Poll of Ottawa Muslims,” Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 5 (2011): 804–819; John Thompson and Joe Turlej, Other People's Wars: A Review of Overseas Terrorism in Canada (Toronto: Mackenzie Institute, 2003), http://pdf.edocr.com/3396e330692c0396edad12ebff090e8bc6b63d37.pdf; Wilner (see note 37 above); Michael Zekulin, “Terrorism in Canada,” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 13, no. 3 (2011): 1–19, http://www.jmss.org/jmss/index.php/jmss/article/view/410; Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Senator Linda Frum (eds.), Terror in the Peaceable Kingdom: Understanding and Addressing Violent Extremism in Canada (Washington, DC: FDD Press, 2012), http://www.defenddemocracy.org/stuff/uploads/documents/Peaceable_Kingdom.pdf.
Note that Hamas and other Palestinian groups are excluded because there is little evidence of a global jihadi agenda, and Hezbollah is excluded as a Shia organization.
E.g. Edwin Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe: Their Characteristics and the Circumstances in Which They Joined the Jihad: An Exploratory Study (The Hague: Clingendael Institute, 2006); Sam Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia: An Empirical Examination of the ‘Home-Grown’ Threat,” Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 2 (2011): 254–285; Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (note 13 above); Robin Simcox, Hannah Stuart, Houriya Ahmed, Islamist Terrorism: The British Connections (London: The Centre for Social Cohesion, 2010); Andrew Zammit, Who Becomes a Jihadist in Australia? A Comparative Analysis, Presented at the “Understanding Terrorism from an Australian Perspective: Radicalisation, Re-radicalisation and Counter Radicalisation,” Global Terrorism Research Centre conference, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, November 8, 2010, http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/radicalisation/conferences-and-events/conference-2010/--downloads/who-jihadist-australia.pdf.
Sam Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia … ” (see note 58 above); Petter Nesser, “Chronology of Jihadism in Western Europe 1994–2007: Planned, Prepared and Executed Terrorist Attacks,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31, no. 10 (2008): 924–946; Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 58 above).
See e.g., Alison Pargeter, The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical Islam in Europe (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).
These are: a) Mahad Ali Dhore—part of the so-called “Somali-6.” Dhore left Canada in 2009 but was originally excluded from the sample due to lacking information. He has since reportedly been killed taking part in a terrorist attack in Mogadishu in April 2013; b) Fadumo Jama (female)—allegedly an al-Shabaab facilitator in Somalia; c) William Plotnikov—killed in Dagestan in July 2012; d) Xristos Katsiroubas, Ali Medlej, and Aaron Yoon—Katsiroubas and Medlej took part, and were killed, in the siege of an Algerian gas plant in January 2013. Yoon was part of the group but was arrested in Mauritania in December 2011. A suspected fourth member of the group, Mujahid Enderi, is unaccounted for; e) In March 2013 an unnamed male from Quebec was reported to have joined the conflict in Syria; f) Chiheb Esseghaier and Raed Jaser, arrested in April 2013, stand accused of plotting to attack a passenger train in a plot allegedly directed by al-Qaeda in Iran. Esseghaier's alleged recruiter, Ahmed Abassi, was arrested in New York but was previously living in Canada; g) an unnamed Canadian reportedly killed in Syria in May 2013; h) “Abu Muslim,” a Canadian convert who was revealed to be fighting in Syria; i) John Nuttall and Amanda Karody, who were arrested in July 2013 in Abbotsford, BC, on suspicion of planning domestic attacks; j) Mohammed Ali Dirie, who was previously convicted for his role in the Toronto 18 case and was reportedly killed fighting in Syria in September 2013.
See Kitchen and Sasikumar, “Canada (En)Counters Terrorism” (note 27 above), 159.
Sam Mullins, Home-Grown Islamist Terrorism: The US, UK and Australia, Presented at the “Understanding Terrorism in an Australian Context: Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation and Counter-Radicalisation,” Global Terrorism Research Centre Conference, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, September 2, 2011.
“Most Cdns. Oppose Afghanistan Deployment: Poll,” CTV News, May 6, 2006, http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20060506/conservative_poll_060506/.
Sam Mullins, “Iraq Versus Lack of Integration: Understanding the Motivations of Contemporary Islamist Terrorists in Western Countries,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 4, no. 2 (2012): 110–133; Petter Nesser, How Does Radicalization Occur in Europe? Presented at the Second Inter-Agency Radicalization Conference, Washington, DC, July 10, 2006, http://www.mil.no/multimedia/archive/00080/DHS_foredrag_80480a.pdf.
This includes 17 convictions (one person convicted on two separate occasions), of which 10 occurred prior to 9/11.
“Canada Quietly Deports Algerian Terrorist Suspect,” CBC News, January 13, 2006, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2006/01/13/deported-terrorist060113.html.
Michael Adams, Muslims and Multiculturalism in Canada (Ottawa and Toronto: Environics Research Group, 2007) 7, http://www.environicsinstitute.org/PDF-MuslimsandMulticulturalisminCanada-LiftingtheVeil.pdf.
More recent cases also support this analysis. Only one out of nine individuals involved in Islamist terrorism between 2012 and mid-2013 was living in Montreal (and one other in Quebec City) while the rest were from Toronto. However, it is worth noting that other residents of Quebec are also under suspicion and in March 2013 a Montreal imam stated that he was seeing more and more young people participating in “radical discourse” (“Quebec Mother of Terror Suspect Warns Other Parents,” CBC News, March 4, 2013, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/story/2013/03/04/quebec-homegrown-terrorist-csis-spy-intelligence-syria-islam-muslim.html.).
Additional, more recent locations have included Sherbrooke and Quebec City, QC.
Adams, Muslims and Multiculturalism in Canada (note 70 above), 8.
Ibid.; Renata D'Aliesio, “Young Somali-Canadians Drawn to Activism,” Globe and Mail, September 23, 2011, http://m.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/toronto/globe-to/young-canadian-somalis-drawn-to-activism/article2178580/?service=mobile.
Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above).
Edwin Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above).
Andrew Zammit, Who Becomes a Jihadist in Australia? (note 58 above).
Sam Mullins, A Systematic Analysis of Islamist Terrorism in the USA and UK: 2001–2008 (University of Wollongong, unpublished doctoral thesis, 2010).
Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above); Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above).
Evan Kohlmann, “Anatomy of a Modern Homegrown Terror Cell: Aabid Khan et al. (Operation Praline),” NEFA Foundation (2008), http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/nefaaabidkhan0908.pdf.
Raveena Aulakh, “Desperate Times in the Diaspora; Somali-Canadians Grapple with Terrorism's Appeal to Their Youth,” Toronto Star, April 19, 2011, http://www.markacadeey.com/april2011/20110409_4e.htm.
Michelle Shephard, “Meet the Canadian Woman Who Runs a Safe House for Al Qaeda Suicide Bombers,” Toronto Star, July 12, 2012, http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/1225263---mama-shabab-former-toronto-resident-called-den-mother-to-young-somali-militants.
Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above), 302–303; Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above), 259–260; Simcox, Stuart, and Ahmed, Islamist Terrorism (note 58 above), 230.
E.g., Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above), 49; Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above), 58; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (note 13 above), 75.
Mullins, A Systematic Analysis … (note 78 above), 303–304; Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above), 260; Simcox, Stuart, and Ahmed, Islamist Terrorism (note 58 above), 238.
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above), 50; Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above) 304–305; Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above), 260–261. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above), 60; Simcox, Stuart, and Ahmed, Islamist Terrorism (note 58 above), 240–241.
Mullins A Systematic Analysis … (note 78 above), 195–250; Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above), 260.
Bartlett, Birdwell, and King, The Edge of Violence (note 56 above).
E.g., Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above); Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (note 13 above); Zammit, Who Becomes a Jihadist in Australia? (note 58 above).
“Unclassified Summary of Evidence for Administrative Review Board in the Case of Zumiri, Hassan,” Department of Defense Office for the Administrative Review of the Detention of Enemy Combatants at U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, December 19, 2007, http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/533-hasan-zemiri/documents/9.
Greg McArthur, Patrick White, Joe Friesen, Christie Blatchford, Marten Youssef, and Colin Freeze, “Global Manhunt for Canadian Students,” Globe and Mail, October 1, 2010, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/global-manhunt-for-canadian-students/article1736541/singlepage/#articlecontent.
R. v. Said Namouh, Sentencing Judgement, Court of Quebec, 2010 QCCQ 943 (2010) Montreal, Quebec, ¶ 24, http://www.canlii.org/en/qc/qccq/doc/2010/2010qccq943/2010qccq943.pdf.
R. v. N.Y., ON SC YC-07-1587 (Ontario Superior Court of Justice, September 25, 2008) ¶ 60–68, http://nefafoundation.org/file/Maj_v_NY_20080925.pdf.
R v. Ali Mohammed Dirie, ON SC 2055/07 (Ontario Superior Court of Justice, October 2, 2009), http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/2009/2009canlii58598/2009canlii58598.pdf.
Interview with Mubin Shaikh, undercover operative in the Toronto 18 case.
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above), 63.
R. v. Mohammad Momin Khawaja, Reasons for Judgement, 04-G30282 (Ontario Superior Court of Justice, October 29, 2008) ¶ 29–30, http://nefafoundation.org/file/FeaturedDocs/Khawaja_ReasonsforJudgment.pdf.
“Toronto 18 Ringleader Gets 16 Years,” CBC News, October 25, 2010, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/story/2010/10/25/toronto-toronto-18-terrorism-sentence.html.
Michele Mandel, “Terrorist Sings New Tune,” Toronto Sun, November 26, 2010, http://www.torontosun.com/news/columnists/michele_mandel/2010/11/26/16337296.html.
R. v. Said Namouh (2010) (see note 92 above).
Sean Chase, “Army Base Bomb Plot Suspect Denied Bail,” QMI Agency, January 21, 2011, http://www.canadaka.net/link.php?id=66427; John Goddard, “Anti-Terrorism Squad Jails Pembroke Man,” Toronto Star, December 22, 2010, http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/911201--anti-terrorism-squad-jails-pembroke-man.
A possible exception here is Yogakrishnan, who, although a minor, was described by Ahmad as “addicted” to shoplifting (R. v. N.Y., ¶ 60).
An apparent recent example of this is Raed Jaser, arrested in April 2013 in relation to the alleged al-Qaeda-driven plot to derail a passenger train going from Toronto to New York. He is known to have a significant criminal record, in particular relating to fraud; however, these offences occurred several years previously and there are no indications at present that they are related to his involvement in terrorism (“Record of a Detention Review under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, Concerning Raed Jaser,” Immigration and Refugee Board, Toronto West Detention Centre, April 25, 2004, http://www.scribd.com/doc/137969135/Toronto-Terror-suspect-Raed-Jaser-refugee-document#download.)
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above); Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above); Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above); Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (note 13 above).
Teotonio, “The Toronto 18” (see note 42 above).
E.g., Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (note 58 above); Arie Kruglanski and Shira Fishman, “The Psychology of Terrorism: ‘Syndrome’ Versus ‘Tool’ Perspectives,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18 (2006): 193–215; Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above); Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above); Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (note 13 above); Andrew Silke, “Holy Warriors: Exploring the Psychological Processes of Jihadi Radicalization,” European Journal of Criminology 5, no. 1 (2008): 99–123.
Note that radicalization does not inevitably lead to terrorism. Perhaps thousands of people are radicalized in terms of their beliefs but never act in support of terrorism.
Stewart Bell, The Martyr's Oath (see note 39 above), 41–43.
Omar el-Akkad and Greg McArthur, “A Grand Existence Among Muslims On-Line,” Globe and Mail, August 19, 2006, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/a-grand-existence-among-muslims-on-line/article840152/singlepage/#articlecontent.
Interview with Mubin Shaikh, undercover operative in the Toronto 18 case.
Ibid.
Michelle Malkin, “Trailing Attempted Espionage: Who is Ryan Anderson a.k.a. Amir Talhah?,” National Review, February 13, 2004, http://old.nationalreview.com/comment/malkin200402130909.asp.
Adam Fresco, “Bomber Nicky Reilly was Brainwashed Online by Pakistani Extremists,” The Times, October 16, 2008, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article4951616.ece.
United States v. Faruq Khalil Muhammad ’lsa, Complaint, United States District Court, Eastern District of New York, Cr. No. M11-039, January 19, 2011, 3, http://nefafoundation.org/newsite/file/US_v_FaruqKhalil_complaint.pdf.
See Petter Nesser, How Does Radicalization Occur in Europe (see note 67 above).
Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 45–46; “Transcript: Son of al-Qaeda,” PBS, August 23, 2004, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/khadr/etc/script.html.
Teotonio, “The Toronto 18” (see note 42 above).
Stewart Bell, “Former Somali Fighter Warns of Growing Radicalism in Canada,” National Post, March 19, 2010, http://www.vancouversun.com/story_print.html?id=2702129&sponsor.
Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above).
See Mitchell Silber and Arvin Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (New York: New York City Police Department, 2007).
“Canada Foils ‘al-Qaeda-Linked’ Terror Attack on Train,” BBC News, April 23, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22258191#TWEET731278.
United States v. Mohammed Abdullah Warsame, Affidavit in Support of Pre-trial Detention, United States District Court District of Minnesota, Case No. 04-29 (JRT/FLN) February 6, 2004, http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/US_v_Warsame_FBIaffidavit.pdf.
Michelle Shephard and Tonda McCharles, “Mosque Founder Tied to Terrorist Group,” Toronto Star, March 9, 2005, http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg06344.html.
Joe Friesen, “Terror Group Claims Canadian Killed,” Globe and Mail, March 18, 2010, http://www.alqimmah.net/archive/index.php/t-15090.html.
R. v. Mohammad Momin Khawaja (see note 40 above), ¶ 101, 140.
R. v. Said Namouh (2010) (see note 92 above).
United States v. Faruq Khalil Muhammad ’lsa (see note 114 above), Complaint.
See Sam Mullins, “Home-Grown Terrorism: Issues & Implications,” Perspectives on Terrorism 1, no. 3 (2007), http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php?option=com_rokzine&view=article&id=12.
Kohlmann, “Anatomy of a Modern Homegrown Terror Cell” (note 80 above).
Stewart Bell, “Killing Canadians ‘Best Way’ in Afghanistan: Student,” National Post, November 21, 2010, http://www.nationalpost.com/news/Killing+Canadians+best+Afghanistan+student/272528/story.html/.
Chase, “Army Base Bomb Plot Suspect Denied Bail” (see note 101 above).
“RCMP Arrests Individual for Terrorism-Related Offences,” Royal Canadian Mounted Police, March 30, 2011, http://nefafoundation.org/newsite/file/RCMP_MohamedHassanHersi.pdf.
Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above).
Stewart Bell, “Under Western Eyes,” National Post, October 14, 2005, http://www.fpinfomart.ca/.
“Affidavit of Gregory T. Hughes,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, July 21, 2005, 5, http://nefafoundation.org/file/FeaturedDocs/U.S._v_Khadr_FBIAff.pdf.
R. v. Mohammad Momin Khawaja (see note 40 above).
Isabel Teotonio, “The Sting Operation” (see note 43 above).
R. v. N.Y. (see note 93 above).
Jeff Sallott, “Once a Mujahed Who Took Flying Lessons, Ahmad El Maati Seemed to Fit the Profile of a Terrorist,” Globe and Mail, August 29, 2005, http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/ArticleNews/story/GAM/20050829/ELMAATI29.
Adil Charkaoui v. Canada (The Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) 2004 FCA 421 (2004) Ottawa, Ontario, 18, http://nefafoundation.org/file/FeaturedDocs/Charkaoui_AffirmingSecurityCertificate.pdf.
“Al-Qaeda Family: The Black Sheep,” CBC News, March 3, 2004, http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/khadr/alqaedafamily4.html.
Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 84–85.
Michelle Shephard, “Canadian Insurgent ‘Asparo’ Killed in Somalia,” Toronto Star, July 3, 2008, http://www.thestar.com/article/453238.
Stewart Bell, The Martyr's Oath (see note 39 above); Dave Kewley, “Parents Insist Son was no Terrorist: But U.S. Says Ex-St. Kitts Man was a Leader in al-Qaeda,” The Spectator, July 5, 2003, http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com.
Indictment Unsealed Charging Additional Member of al Qaeda Plot,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, March 15, 2011, http://www.fbi.gov/newyork/press-releases/2011/indictment-unsealed-charging-additional-member-of-al-qaeda-plot; Greg McArthur, Patrick White, Joe Friesen, Christie Blatchford, Marten Youssef, and Colin Freeze, “Global Manhunt for Canadian Students,” Globe and Mail, October 1, 2010, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/global-manhunt-for-canadian-students/article1736541/singlepage/#articlecontent.
Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above).
Sandro Contenta, Michelle Shephard, and Robert Cribb, “Toronto Men in Terror Riddle; Two Hold Key Posts in Ansar al-Islam, Kurdish Militia Says; U.S. Considers Group the Link Between Saddam and Al Qaeda,” Toronto Star, March 14, 2003, http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/search.html.
Bill Gillespie. “Accused in Toronto 18 Plot Pleads Guilty,” CBC News, February 26, 2010, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/story/2010/02/26/toronto-18-james.html.
“RCMP Arrests Individual for Terrorism-Related Offences” (see note 132 above).
Nadia Abou el-Magd, “Egyptian-Canadian Pleads Innocent in Militant Trial,” Associated Press Worldstream, June 30, 2002, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-53956421.html; Rawya Rageh, “Egyptian Military Court Convicts 51 in Militants Trial,” Associated Press Wordstream, September 9, 2002, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-67244576.html ..
R. v. Said Namouh, Judgement, Court of Quebec, 2009 QCCQ 9324 (2009) Montreal, Quebec, ¶ 85–138,http://www.canlii.org/en/qc/qccq/doc/2009/2009qccq9324/2009qccq9324.pdf.
As noted above, additional cases of Canadians planning or taking part in terrorist attacks have since emerged, including two successful attacks overseas (in Somalia and Algeria) and one foiled plot to attack a train travelling between Canada and the U.S. These more recent cases demonstrate that the desire to take part in terrorism overseas is still strong.
Ian Katz and John Walcott, “Al-Qaeda Members Gripe Over Cash Crunch as U.S. Targets Funding,” Bloomberg News, January 10, 2012, http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2012/01/09/bloomberg_articlesLXEHYP6S9728.DTL&ao=all.
Brian Caldwell, “U.S. Probes Founder of Waterloo Agency,” The Record (Kitchener, ON), June 15, 2002, www.pqarchiver.com; “Ottawa Freezes Assets of Charity Linked to Osama bin Laden,” The Record (Kitchener, ON), November 25, 2002, www.pqarchiver.com.
Sarah Boesveld, “Canadian Muslim Youth Group Tied to al-Qaeda Stripped of Charitable Status,” National Post, March 7, 2012, http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/03/06/canadian-muslim-youth-organization-loses-charitable-status/.
Shephard, Guantanamo's Child (note 14 above), 30.
United States v. Mokhtar Haouari, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. S4 00 CR 15 (JFK), July 3, 2001, http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/cnn/docs/haouari/ushaouari70301rassamtt.pdf.
See Bell, Cold Terror (note 7 above), 140.
“RCMP Arrests Individual for Terrorism-Related Offences” (see note 132 above).
“Quebec Mother of Terror Suspect Warns Other Parents” (see note 71 above).
Adrian Wyld, “Toronto Terror Plot: Tunisian Charged by U.S. Allegedly Had Ties to Canadian VIA Rail Suspects,” Toronto Star, May 9, 2013, http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/05/09/toronto_terror_plot_tunisian_charged_by_us_with_visa_fraud_tied_to_terrorism.html.
In fact Esseghaier—who was known as a “nightmare neighbour”—had been evicted from his apartment and was effectively homeless at the time of his arrest (Tristin Hopper, “‘He Would Scream Like a Maniac at all Hours': VIA Rail Terror Suspect was a Nightmare Neighbour,” National Post, April 26, 2013, http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/04/26/chiheb-esseghaier-via-rail-terror-suspect-was-a-nightmare-neighbour/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter). This does not appear to indicate sophisticated training or high levels of support.
Recent cases generally support this assessment.
See Michael Kenney, “Beyond the Internet: Mētis, Techne, and the Limitations of Online Artifacts for Islamist Terrorists,” Terrorism and Political Violence 22, no. 2 (2010): 177–197.
Bell, The Martyr's Oath (see note 39 above), 41–43.
Bell, The Martyr's Oath (note 39 above).
“Minneapolis Man Sentenced for Conspiracy to Provide Material Support to Al-Qaeda,” US Department of Justice, July 9, 2009, http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/US_v_Warsame_dojprsentencing.pdf.
Bell, Cold Terror (see note 7 above), 187.
United States v. Adham Amin Hassoun, Mohamed Hesham Youssef, Kifah Wael Jayyousi, Kassem Daher and Jose Padilla, Superseding Indictment, United States District Court Southern District of Florida, 04-60001-CR-COOKE, November 17, 2005, http://www.investigativeproject.org/documents/case_docs/588.pdf.
Note that this has not gone unnoticed. See, for example, Youth Online and At Risk: Radicalization Facilitated by the Internet (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2011), http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/nsci-ecsn/rad/rad-eng.htm.
R. v. N.Y. (see note 93 above), ¶ 73–76.
Interview with Mubin Shaikh, undercover operative in the Toronto 18 case.
Focus Canada.
R. v. N.Y. (see note 93 above), ¶ 79.
Ibid.; Note that in this document Chand and Ahmad are referred to as “ZZ” and “UU” respectively. Their identities are inferred from what is known about the case.
In Ressam's case the investigation was classed as having been initiated by routine international (U.S.) law enforcement. The length of the investigation, however, was classed as unknown because of previous, unclear investigative activities relating to information provided by the French.
“Wanted—Again: Canadians on an FBI Terror List,” CBC News, May 27, 2004, http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/ussecurity/fbi_wanted.html.
Bell, The Martyr's Oath (note 39 above), 94–96.
Stewart Bell, “Tunisia Convicts Canadian Terror Suspect: Six-Year Sentence: Human Rights Group Asks Retired Judge to Investigate,” National Post, January 11, 2005, http://www.adpminfo.org/spip.php?article128.
Stewart Bell, “Extremists Praise Somali Canadian in Online Eulogy,” National Post, May 4, 2010, http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=2986731.
John Goddard, “Anti-Terrorism Squad Jails Pembroke Man,” Toronto Star, December 22, 2010, http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/911201--anti-terrorism-squad-jails-pembroke-man.
Leigh Remizowski, “Canada Arrests Somali-Bound Man on Terror Charge,” CNN, March 30, 2011, http://articles.cnn.com/2011-03-30/world/canada.somalia.suspect_1_somalia-arrests-militant-group?_s=PM:WORLD.
“Indictment Unsealed Charging Additional Member of al Qaeda Plot,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, March 15, 2011, http://www.fbi.gov/newyork/press-releases/2011/indictment-unsealed-charging-additional-member-of-al-qaeda-plot; “Transcript of FBI Interview with Adis Medunjanin on January 7, 2010: Case No. 1:10-CR-00019-RJD,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, January 13, 2011, http://www.nefafoundation.org/newsite/file/US_v_Medunjanin_exhibita010710intvu.pdf.
R. v. Mohammad Momin Khawaja (see note 40 above).
United States v. Faruq Khalil Muhammad ’Isa (see note 114 above).
Kirk Johnson, “New Sentence is Imposed in Bomb Plot from 1999,” New York Times, October 24, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/25/us/millennium-bomber-sentenced-to-37-years-in-prison.html?emc=tnt&tntemail1=y&_r=0.
Valentina Spiga, “Slovakia Deports Mustapha Labsi to Algeria,” The Lift, May 1, 2010, http://legalift.wordpress.com/2010/05/01/slovakia-deports-mustapha-labsi-to-algeria/.
“Algeria: Briefing to the Committee Against Torture,” Amnesty International, 2008, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE28/001/2008/en/3d68543b-0fa9-11dd-abf6-51bf0e76e307/mde280012008eng.html.
Note that details of investigations in particular require additional study, including input from CT authorities.
E.g., Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 58 above); Manni Crone and Martin Harrow, “Homegrown Terrorism in the West,” Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 4 (2011): 521–536; Mullins, A Systematic Analysis… (note 78 above); Mullins, “Islamist Terrorism and Australia” (note 58 above); Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (note 58 above).
In this regard, it is important to note that despite the alleged involvement of al-Qaeda in the train derailment plot, the attacks itself was not imminent, and the capabilities of Esseghaier and Jaser are questionable.
Mullins, Home-Grown Islamist Terrorism (see note 65 above).
See, e.g., Robert Leiken, “Europe's Mujahideen: Where Mass Immigration Meets Global Terrorism,” Center for Immigration Studies, April 2005, http://www.cis.org/articles/2005/back405.html.
Focus Canada.
The following discussion was informed via interviews with Michael King, Michelle Shephard, Isabel Teotonio, and others.
The author does not assert that the presence of such groups inevitably contributes to rates of terrorism; however, they are a point of relevant concern. For an excellent discussion of these matters see Lorenzo Vidino, “The Role of Non-Violent Islamists in Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization: The European Debate,” in Laurie Fenstermacher and Todd Leventhal, eds., Countering Violent Extremism: Scientific Methods and Strategies, Topical Strategic Multi-Layer Assessment and Air Force Research Laboratory Multi-Disciplinary White Paper in Support of Counter-Terrorism and Counter-WMD (2011), 101–104, http://www.nsiteam.com/pubs/U_Counter%20Violent%20Extremism%20Final_Approved%20for%20Public%20Release_28Oct11v3.pdf.
Petter Nesser, “Jihadism in Western Europe After the Invasion of Iraq: Tracing Motivational Influences from the Iraq War on Jihadist Terrorism in Western Europe,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29, no. 4 (2006): 323–342.
Sam Mullins, “Iraq Versus Lack of Integration: Understanding the Motivations of Contemporary Islamist Terrorists in Western Countries,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 4, no. 2 (2012): 110–133.
Note that less than 1% of the Muslim population actively supports terrorism. From a statistical point of view, a growth in the population necessarily means that this minority proportion potentially represents a larger number of people.
Nicole O'Reilly, “Islamic School Hosts First Ontario RCMP Junior Police Academy,” The Spec, December 15, 2011, http://www.thespec.com/community/article/639661--islamic-school-hosts-first-ontario-rcmp-junior-police-academy; Interview with Mubin Shaikh.
Building Resilience Against Terrorism (see note 55 above).
CONTEST: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism (London: HM Government, 2011), http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/counter-terrorism-strategy/strategy-contest?view=Binary; Counter-Terrorism White Paper: Securing Australia, Protecting Our Community (Canberra: Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2010), http://www.dpmc.gov.au/publications/counter_terrorism/index.cfm.
Report to the Home Secretary of Independent Oversight of Prevent Review and Strategy (London: HM Government, 2011), http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/prevent/prevent-strategy/lord-carlile-report?view=Binary; Strategic Implementation Plan for Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Extremism in the United States (Washington DC: White House, 2011), http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/sip-final.pdf; “Youth Mentoring Grants to Help Tackle Violent Extremism,” Attorney General's Department, February 22, 2011, http://www.attorneygeneral.gov.au/www/ministers/mcclelland.nsf/Page/MediaReleases_2011_FirstQuarter_22February2011-Youthmentoringgrantstohelptackleviolentextremism.
Interview with Michael King.
Notable individuals include Muhammad Robert Heft, Sayyid Ahmed Amiruddin, and Mohammed Shaikh.
It is notable here that in January 2012 Zakaria Amara allegedly attacked Mohammad Khawaja in prison with scalding water over an ideological dispute (“Terrorism Convict Khawaja Scalded in Prison Attack,” Huffington Post, January 25, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2012/01/25/khawaja-prison-attack-toronto-18-zakaria-amara_n_1230066.html; “Boiling Water Thrown in Terror Convict Khawaja's Face,” Montreal Gazette, January 24, 2012, http://www.montrealgazette.com/Boiling+water+thrown+terror+convict+Khawaja+face+report/6045046/story.html).
Shiraz Maher and Martyn Frampton, Choosing Our Friends Wisely: Criteria for Engagement with Muslim Groups (London: Policy Exchange, 2009), http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/publications/pdfs/Choosing_Our_Friends_Wisely.pdf.
Ibid.; Prevent Strategy (London: HM Government, 2011), http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/prevent/prevent-strategy/prevent-strategy-review?view=Binary.