Yugoslav Women’s Movement and “The Happiness to the World”

ABSTRACT

This analysis focuses on the ways in which the interwar Yugoslav women’s movement contributed to national and international political processes of that time, and it divides into two parts. The first deals with the national efforts of the Yugoslav women’s umbrella alliance and its endorsement of the concepts of Yugoslavia and a Yugoslav nation. The second analyses the international activities of Yugoslav women’s organisations on a global and regional level. It investigates the ways that women’s co-operation was used to promote peaceful solutions to regional and international conflicts. However, the national and international women’s movement was a social product of its time. Although promoting pacifism and transnational concepts, in many ways it also faced, mirrored, and sometimes perpetuated contemporary social and national conflicts and prejudices.

Notes

¹ “‘Šta će doneti sreću svetu.’ Povodom sastanka slovenskih žena u Pragu”, Ženski svet, 3(March 1930), 3-4.

² J. Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije u radničkom pokretu i ženskim organizacijama 1918-1941 (Beograd, 1978); L. Sklevicky, Konji, žene, ratovi (Zagreb, 1996).

³ M. Antić Gaber and I. Selišnik, “Slovene Women’s Suffrage Movement in a Comparative Perspective”, in I. Sulkunen, L. Nevala-Nurmi, and P. Markkola, eds., Suffrage, Gender and Citizenship. International Perspectives on Parliamentary Reforms (Newcastle upon Tyne, 2009), 219-41; M. Bokovoy, “Croatia”, in K. Passmore, ed., Women, Gender and Fascism in Europe 1919-1945 (Manchester 2003), 111-23; S.P. Ramet, Gender Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Successor States (University Park, PA, 1999).

⁴ Žena i svet (Beograd, 1925-42) was one of the most popular women’s magazine in Serbia. See also S. Stefanović, “Ženska štampa: Žena i svet 1925-1942”, in Latinka Perović, ed., Srbija u modernizacijskim procesima 19. i 20. veka. Sv.2, Položaj žene kao merilo modernizacije, (Beograd, 1998), 408-20; Ženski pokret (Beograd, 1920-1938), bulletin of the feminist organisation, “Women’s Movement”. See also G. Krivokapić Jović, “‘Društvo za prosvećivanje žena i zaštitu njenih parava’- radikali i žensko parvo glasa posle Prvog svetskog rata”, in Perović, Srbija u modernizacijskim procesima, 299-308.

⁵ It covered activities of the NWA from 1934-1941, ABiH [Archive of Bosnia i Herzegovina, Sarajevo] Fond Jugoslavenski ženski savez, Sekcija za Drinsku banovinu, Sarajevo, 1934-1941.

⁶ I. Goldstein, Hrvatska 1918-2008 (Zagreb, 2008); I. Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics (Ithaca, NY, 1984); Lj. Boban, Hrvatske granice od 1918. do 1993. godine (Zagreb, 1995).

⁷ There were also three unrecognised but organised nations – Bosnians, Montenegrins, and Macedonians.

⁸ During the founding conference in 1919, there was even proposal to prescribe the Serbian nationality of the president: A. Milčinović, “Kongres Jugoslavenskih žena u Beogradu”, Jugoslavenska žena, 7(1919), 281-87.

⁹ Z. Kveder, “Dojmovi s kongresa jugoslavenskih žena u Beogradu”, Ibid., 287-325; L. Sklevicky, “Karakteristike organiziranog djelovanja žena u Jugoslaviji u razdoblju do drugog svjetskog rata I”, Polja-časopis za kulturu, umetnost i društvena pitanja, 308(1984), 415-17; J. Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije, 163-78, 266-81; T. Emmeret, “Ženski pokret: The feminist movement in Serbia in the 1920s”, in Ramet, Gender Politics, 33-49.

¹⁰ Susan Zimmermann, “The Challenge of Multinational Empire for the International Women’s Movement: The Habsburg Monarchy and the Development of Feminist International politics”, in Karen Offen, ed., Globalizing feminisms, 1789-1945 (London, NY, 2010), 153-70.

¹¹ Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije, 163-78.

¹² Jugoslavenska žena – from 1917-1919 called Ženski svijet, Zagreb – was a monthly women’s magazine published from 1917-1921. Its editor, Zofka Kveder (1878-1926), was a Slovenian feminist, writer, and editor of numerous magazines: Edinost, Domaći prijatelj, Ženski svijet, and Jugoslavenska žena. She strongly endorsed the Yugoslav idea; and after moving to Zagreb, she started to write in Croatian.

¹³ Z. Kveder, “U kolo”,Jugoslavenska žena, 1(1919), 1.

¹⁴ Adela Milčinović (1879-1968), Croatian writer, publicist, journalist, and activist for women’s rights. She moved to the United States in 1925.

¹⁵ Territories occupied by Italian forces under the 1915 Treaty of London.

¹⁶ Milčinović, “Kongres jugoslavenskih”, Jugoslavenska žena, 7(1919), 281-87.

Milčinović, “Kongres jugoslavenskih”, Jugoslavenska žena, 7(1919), 281-87.

¹⁷ “Reč uprave”, in Izveštaji saveznih udruženja za godinu 1920-21 (Beograd 1921), I.

¹⁸ According to the Verte Taylor and Nancy Whittier, “Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture: The Culture of the Women’s Movement”, Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture. New Edition, Volume 4: Social Movements, Protest, and Contention (Minneapolis, MN, 1995), 163-87, three segments shaped collective identity: common interests, boundaries, and politisation of everyday life.

¹⁹ Serbia annexed Macedonia – today the Republic of North Macedonia – during the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars. In the 1920s, it was “Southern Serbia” and, after 1929, organised as Vardar Banovina.

²⁰ Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije, 163-78.

²¹ Govekar Minka 1922-1941 (1666), AS [Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana] I, 1-3; Ibid., III, 3; “Predstojeći sastanak jugoslavenskih žena”, Jugoslavenska žena, 1-2(1920), 13-15; “Svečani dani u Skoplju. Skupština Narodnog ženskog saveza”, Žena i svet, 11(November 1925), 7; “Kongres Narodnog ženskog saveza”, Ibid., 12(December 1926), 8-9; “Skupština Narodnog ženskog saveza”, Ibid., 11(November 1927), 5-6; “Skupština jugolavenskog ženskog saveza u Splitu”, Ženski pokret, 17-20(October 1929), 2-3; “Kongres jugoslavenskog ženskog saveza u Splitu”, Politika (7 October 1929); “Kongres jugslovenskog ženskog saveza”, Novo doba (7 October 1929); “Kongres jugoslavenskog ženskog saveza započeo je juče u Zagrebu”, Politika (13 October 1930); “Kongres jugoslavenskog ženskog saveza”, Novosti (13 October 1930); “Godišnja skupština jugoslavenskog ženskog saveza”, Ženski pokret, 19-20(October 1930), 2 etc.

²² “Dojmovi s kongresa jugoslavenskih žena u Beogradu”, Jugoslavenska žena, 7(1919), 300.

²³ “Jugoslavenski ženski savez”, Ženski svet, 11(November 1930), 3.

²⁴ The Circle of Serbian Sisters was a cultural, educational, and patriotic society founded in Belgrade in 1903. It published kalends Vadar.

²⁵ Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije, 177.

²⁶ M. Mazower [Evelin Toth Mucciaccairo, translator], Mračni kontinent (Zagreb, 2004), 83-108; A. Muraj, “Odnos građanstva spram narodne nošnje i seljačkog tekstilnog umijeća”, Narodna umjetnost, 43/2(2006), 7-40.

²⁷ Queen Marija Karađorđević (1900-1961), wife of the King Aleksandar I Karađorđević of Yugoslavia and daughter of Romanian King Ferdinand I.

²⁸ “Kolo srpskih sestara”; Ženski svet, 6(June 1930); “Izložba jugoslavenskog narodnog blaga”, Ibid., 7(July1930), 5-6. Photos from balls in Belgrade, Novi Sad, and Tuzla, or members of the royal family wearing different national costumes, can be found in the women’s magazine, Žena i svet: 2(February 1926), 62-63; 3(March 1926), cover; 5(May 1927), cover; 7(July 1926), cover; 6(June1927), cover; 4(April 1930), 1, 4, 5; 5(May1930), 2; “Kolo srpskih sestara u Prijedoru”, 1(January1931).

²⁹ The General Women’s Society founded in 1901 as a charitable and feminist society. The Circle of Yugoslav Sisters founded in 1921 and – the like Circle of Serbian Sisters – devoted to charitable work and caring for children. AS XIV, Govekar Minka, 1922-1941 (1666), 85; D. Fortunat, “Slovensko splošno žensko društvo v Ljubljani”, Kronika, 40/2(1992), 98-105.

³⁰ Minka Govekar Vasič (1874-1950), teacher and writer. Co-founder of the General Women’s Society [Ljubljana], secretary of the Slovenian branch of the Alliance. Franja Tavčar (1868-1938), prominent member of the Slovenian interwar women’s movement, second secretary of the Alliance, member of the General Women’s Society [Ljubljana], co-founder of the Circle of Yugoslav Sisters, lady-in-waiting to Queen Marija. Alojzija Štebi (1883-1956), feminist, socialist, teacher, deputy secretary of the Ministry of Social Politics, editor of Zarja and Ženski pokret. For members of the Slovenian women’s movement, see A. Šelih et al., eds., Pozabljena polovica. Potreti ženska 19. in 20. soletja na Slovenskom (Ljubljana, 2007).

³¹ M. Bokovoy, “Croatia“, 111.

³² Z. Kveder, “Dojmovi s kongresa jugoslavenskih žena u Beogradu”, Jugoslavenska žena, 7(1919), 287-325; AS I, Govekar Minka 1922-1941 (1666), 1.

³³ Croatian Woman was an elite, national, and charitable women’s institution founded in Zagreb in 1921, co-operating with the Croatian Peasant Party. About Croatian Woman, see L. Benyovsky, “Društvo Hrvatska žena”, Marulić, Hrvatska književna revija, 26(1993), 747-50.

³⁴ K. Mihurko Poniž, “Kveder Zofka” and S. Jakobović Fribec, “Milčinović Adela”, both in Francisca de Haan et al., eds., A Biographical Dictionary of Women’s Movements and Feminism. Central, Eastern, and South Eastern Europe. 19^th and 20^th Century (Budapest, NY, 2006), 340-44; Emilija Laszowski, “Lopašić Zlata, udata Kovačević” in Znameniti I zaslužni Hrvati. 905-1925 (Zagreb: 1925); “Bedeković, Danica”, Hrvatski biografski leksikon s.v.

³⁵ Founded in 1875 in Belgrade, the Women’s Society gathered elite members of Serbian society and published the first women’s magazine, Domaćica.

³⁶ L.J. Rupp, “Transnational Women’s Movements”, European History Online (June 2011): http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations/international-social-movements/leila-j-rupp-transnational-womens-movements.

³⁷ The Vidovdan Constitution was approved on Vidovdan Day, 28 June 1921. It did not reject women’s suffrage altogether, but left the decision to the Election Law, which, however, did not mention the subject. For more about the suffrage struggle in Yugoslavia, see I. Ograjšek Gorenjak, Opasne iluzije. Rodni stereotipi u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji (Zagreb, 2014), 89-112.

³⁸ It was a short-lived resignation; she became president again next year: Z. Janković, Problem saveza (Zemun, 1926), 15-19.

³⁹ The founding groups of the Alliance of Feminist Societies were the General Women’s Society [Ljubljana], the Association of Yugoslav Women [Zagreb], and the Women’s Movement [Belgrade and Sarajevo]. It promoted women’s suffrage, changing its name to the Alliance of Women’s Movements in 1926. The Association of University Women, founded in 1927, was a member of the International Federation of University Women with branches in Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo, Skopje, Novi Sad, and Šabac.

⁴⁰ “Svečani dani u Skoplju. Skupština Narodnog ženskog saveza”, Žena i svet, 11(November 1927), 7.

⁴¹ AS I, Govekar Minka 1922-1941 (1666); Kecman, Jugoslavenske žene, 175-77.

⁴² Janković, Problem saveza, 4-6.

⁴³ “Kriza na muški način”, Žena i svet, 11(November 1926), 5; “Kuda nas vodiš”, Žena i svet, 12(December 1926), 5-6; “Savez i Zajednica” and “Programi”, both 12(December 1926), Ibid., 6-7.

⁴⁴ “Kome je čela za kapom”, Ibid., 3(March 1927), 5; “Povodm druge ispravke gđe Mare Trifković”; Ibid., 4(April 1927), 6.

⁴⁵ “Okružnica Narodnog ženskog saveza njegovim društvima”, Ibid., 2(February 1927), 5.

⁴⁶ “Je li moguće izmirenje?”, Ibid., 5(May1927).

⁴⁷ “Okružnica Narodnog ženskog saveza njegovim društvima”.

⁴⁸ Ivo Goldstein, “Croatia and Croats in Yugoslavia. Resistance to Centralism”, in Latinka Petrović et al., eds., Yugoslavia from Historical Perspective (Belgrade, 2017), 135.

⁴⁹ “Izdajstvo gospođe Zlate Kovačić Lopašić”, Ženski pokret, 18(1 December 1928), 1; “Saopštenje zagrebačke sekcije Narodnog ženskog savez”, Ženski pokret, 19(15 December 1928).

⁵⁰ “Skupština Jugoslavenskog narodnog ženskog saveza”, Ibid., 17-20(15 October 1929), 2-3.

⁵¹ Today, 11 November is commemorated as Armistice Day, Veterans Day, or Remembrance Day, but their concepts had nothing to do with the initiative of the NWA.

⁵² “Dan mira”, Ženski pokret 17(November 1928): 3; IAB [Historical Archive of Belgrade, Belgrade] Fond Udruženja univerzitetski obrazovanih žena, Box 2, 1931/82; Box 5, 1935/78; Box 4, 1936/77; Box 5, 1937/67; ABiH Fond Jugoslavenski ženski savez, sekcija za Drinsku banovinu, Sarajevo, 1934-1941.

⁵³ “Posle žustre prepirke intelektualke i neintelektualke pomirile su se, ali ipak nisu završile posao”; Politika (23 May1933).

⁵⁴ AS Govekar Minka 1922-1941(1666), XXI, 159,160, 163, 164.

⁵⁵ Ibid., XXI, 163.

⁵⁶ For example, different anthologies of Serbian literature and art include authors from Dubrovnik.

⁵⁷ Ivan Gundulić (1589-1638), a famous Croatian poet and playwright from Dubrovnik. His poetic expression had a great impact on the formation of standard the Croatian language during Croatia’s national movement in nineteenth century. He is also one of the Dubrovnik authors who is frequently included in anthologies of Serbian literature.

⁵⁸ “Umjesto izvještaja o Kongresu Internacionalnog ženskog saveza u Dubrovniku”; Ženski pokret, 7-10(September-December 1936), 50-55.; AS Govekar Minka 1922-1941(1666), 155, 156, 157, 160, 164, 167.

⁵⁹ Kecman, Jugoslavenske žene, 177-90, 268-82; “Mala feministička antanata. Liga za mir i slobodu”, Ženski pokret, 6(1923), 264-68; “Za mir i svobodo”, Ibid., 1-2(1924), 12-18; “Protiv najstrašnijeg rata”, Ibid., 1-2(15 January 1929), 1-2; “VI kongres internacionalne lige žena za slobodu i mir”, Ibid., 17-20(15 October 1929), 2-3; “Iz rada internacionalne lige za mir i slobodu”, Ibid., 11-12(15 June 1930), 2; “Razvoj ženskog pokreta u Jugoslaviji”, Ibid., 9-10(15 May 1931), 2-5.

⁶⁰ The LEW was the largest and probably most interesting of the three organisations. A common mistake is to identify this association with the diplomatic union, also known as the Little Entente, comprised of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. LEW was actually the result of two separate regional initiatives during the 1923 Rome IAW Conference – one Balkan, one Slavic – and it represented Czechoslovakia, Greece, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia, the reason for choosing the name “Little Entente of Women” never explained. It is safe to assume that they simply used a familiar name that best suited them. Its goals were to achieve a better standing within the international women’s movement, promote cultural and economic contacts amongst women, and tout peaceful solutions to the political issues amongst member countries.

⁶¹ Czechoslovakian women initiated the Slavic Women’s Committee after one of the famous balls organised by the Circle of Serbian Sisters in 1928. It brought together Czechoslovaks, Poles, Yugoslavs, Russian émigrés, Serbs, and subsequently Bulgarians. Its goal was to promote pan-Slavism amongst youth, the co-operation of Slavic women and, of course, pacifism.

⁶² Contacts amongst Balkan women occurred during four Balkan conferences at the beginning of 1930s, where delegates from Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Turkey, and Yugoslavia presented the “public opinion” of their homelands and discussed economic, educational, press, and political issues in specialised committees. The Balkan conferences included contributions by women, and there was even some talk of forming an alliance of Balkan women.

⁶³ Leila J. Rupp, “Constructing Internationalism. The Case of Transnational Women’s Organisations 1888-1945”, in Offen, Globalizing Feminisms, 148-51.

Leila J. Rupp, “Constructing Internationalism. The Case of Transnational Women’s Organisations 1888-1945”, in Offen, Globalizing Feminisms, 148-51.

⁶⁴ Isidora Sekulić (1877-1958), a famous Serbian writer, travel writer, essayist, translator, and critic. She was one of the most educated Serbian women of her time and the first female member of the prestigious academic institution, the Serbian Royal Academia of Science and Art. She was an active member of Serbia’s women’s movement.

⁶⁵ Kecman, Jugoslavenske žene, 171; “Povodom kongresa Međunarodnog ženskog saveza u Štokholmu”, Ženski svet, 9(September 1933), 3.

⁶⁶ “Naše žene nisu štatirale u Vašingtonu”, Žena i svet, 7(July 1925), 7.

⁶⁷ Ibid.

⁶⁸ “Kongres internacionalnog ženskog saveza”, Ženski pokret, 13-16(15 July 1930), 1.

⁶⁹ “Mala feministička antanta. Liga za mir i slobodu”, Ibid., 6(1923), 264-68.

⁷⁰ AS Zbirke dokumentov (1668), “Hočevar Pavla”.

⁷¹ Rupp, “Constructing internationalism”, 144.

⁷² Rupp, “Transnational Women’s Movements”.

⁷³ “Kongres internacionalnog ženskog saveza”, Ženski pokret, 13-16(15 July 1930), 1.

⁷⁴ There are reports that the Zagreb Women’s Movement played a major part in organising this event.

⁷⁵ “Četrdeset miliona žena rade za mir”, Ženski svet, 3(March 1932), 3.

⁷⁶ “Konferencija za mir”, Ženski pokret, 11-16(15 August 1931); “Kako žene mogu utjecati javno mišljenje za vreme mira”, Ibid., 17-10(15 October 1931), 1; “Žene i konferencija za razoružanje”, Ibid., 2(February 932), 19-20; “Manifestacije za mir i razoružanje u Jugoslaviji”, Ibid., 3(March 1932), 35-38; “Žena i mir”, Ibid., 3-4(March-April 1935), 45-50; “Internacionalna feministička odlučila je održati sastanak u Beogradu”, Ženski svet, 4(April 1931), 3; “Jugoslavenske!”, Ibid., 5(May 1931), 2; “Skup mudrih žena u Beogradu”, Ibid., 6(June 1931), 3; “Sa kongresa ženske alijanse za mir”, Ibid., 6(June 1931), 4-6; “Četrdeset miliona žena rade za mir”, Ibid., 3(March 1932), 3.

⁷⁷ “Manifestacije za mir i razoružanje u Jugoslaviji”, Ženski pokret, 3(March 1932), 35-38.

⁷⁸ “Trijumf jedinstva jugoslavenskih žena u Novom Sadu”, Ibid., 6(June 1933), 3-4.

⁷⁹ “Kongres jedinstva slovenskih žena u Beogradu”, Ibid., 11-12(November-December 1933), 114-16.

⁸⁰ HAB [Historical Archive of Belgrade, Belgrade] Fond Univerzitetski obrazovanih žena, Box 2, s1933/28, Box 3, 1934/26.

⁸¹ “Razvoj ženskog pokreta u Jugoslaviji“, Ženski pokret, 9-10(15 May 1931), 2-5.

⁸² HAB Fond Univerzitetski obrazovanih žena, Box 5, 1939/10.

⁸³ AS Zbirke dokumentov (1668), “Hočevar Pavla”.

AS Zbirke dokumentov (1668), “Hočevar Pavla”.

⁸⁴ HAB Fond Univerzitetski obrazovanih žena, Box 3, 1934/32.

⁸⁵ AJ [Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade] Univerzitetski obrazovane žene (158), 1.

⁸⁶ Rupp, “Constructing Internationalism”, 141.

⁸⁷ “Za mir i svobodo”, Ženski pokret, 1-2(1924), 12-18; “Naše žene nisu štatirale u Vašingtonu”, Žena i svet, 7(July1925), 7.

⁸⁸ “Kongres jedinstva slovenskih žena u Beogradu”, Ženski pokret, 11-2(November December 1933), 114-16.

⁸⁹ AS Zbirke dokumentov (1668), “Hočevar Pavla”.

⁹⁰ Rupp, “Constructing Internationalism”, 146.

⁹¹ “Sa kongresa internacionalnog ženskog saveza”, Žena i svet, 8(August 1930), 3.

“Sa kongresa internacionalnog ženskog saveza”, Žena i svet, 8(August 1930), 3.

⁹² I.Ograjšek Gorenjak and M. Kardum, “Mala ženska antanta (1923-1939): Mali savez s velikim ambicijama“, Historijski zbornik 71/1(2019), 116-25.

⁹³ “Mala ženska antanta”, Žena i svet, 1(January 1925), 6; “Što će doneti sreću svetu?”, Ibid., 3(March 1930), 3.

⁹⁴ “Žene i mir”, Ženski pokret, 3-4(March-April 1935), 45-50.

Additional information

Funding

This work is supported by the Croatian Science Foundation Research Project: The Transition of Croatian Elites from the Habsburg Monarchy to the Yugoslav State (43-903-2778).

Notes on contributors

Ida Ograjšek Gorenjak

Ida Ograjšek Gorenjak is an assistant professor (docent) at History Department of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Siences in Zagreb, where she teaches courses on Modern History and Gender History for undergraduate, graduate and PhD studies. Her research interests and publications focus on gender history, history of education and cultural history. In her book Dangerous illusions. Gender stereotypes in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (2014) she analyzes the impact of gender stereotypes on political and modernization process and construction of national identities. She actively participated in several national and international projects that dealt with cultural and political, national and regional processes of the late 19^th and first half of 20^th: Century: The Effect of Ideologies of Croatian Peasant Party on the Croatian People 1904-1941.; The Croatian Modern and Contemporary History: European Models and Croatian Identities; The entangled histories of Vienna, Zagreb and Budapest (18^th-20^th Century); The Transition Of Croatian Elites From The Habsburg Monarchy To The Yugoslav State; Modern Women Thinkers: Intellectual Development of Women in the 20^th Century Croatia. She organized round tables on gender history and since 2013 until 2018 she edited history magazine History teaching.