http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8739-5425
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Abstract
Post-uprisings Middle East politics is frequently described as a ‘regional cold war’ involving proxy warfare that emphasises the role of shared identities linking external and local actors. But does the ‘content’ of identities impact proxy war dynamics? This article considers the present ‘battle for Syria’, a local conflict that became a theatre for multiple proxy wars involving actors emphasising identities on various levels, most notably national, religious/ sect and ethnic. It suggests that identity content does matter, with global powers more reluctant than regional players to back groups identifying at sub-national level, while foreign non-state actors are enthusiastic backers of sub-national identity.
Notes
1. Malmvig, “Wars within Wars.”
2. Phillips, The Battle for Syria.
3. Deutsch, “External Involvement in Internal Wars,” 102.
4. Mumford, Proxy Warfare, 1.
5. Ibid.; see also Hughes, “Syria and the Perils of Proxy Warfare,” 523.
6. Mumford, Proxy Warfare, 8.
7. Ibid., 103.
8. Kaldor, Mary (2007). New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
9. For an overview see Valbjørn, “Introduction: The Role of Ideas and Identities.”
10. Gause, “Sovereignty, Statecraft and Stability in the Middle East”; Barnett, “Sovereignty, Nationalism, and Regional Order”; and Hinnebusch, “The Politics of Identity in the Middle East.”
11. Noble, “The Arab System,” 56.
12. Posen, “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict.”
13. Hashemi and Postel, Sectarianization; and Wehrey, Beyond Shia and Sunni.
14. Phillips, Everyday Arab Identity; Valbjørn, “Arab Nationalism(s) in Transformation”; and Dawisha, Arab Nationalism.
15. Salloukh and Brynen, Persistent Permeability; Gause, “Sovereignty, Statecraft and Stability in the Middle East”; and Salamé, “The Middle East: Elusive Security.”
16. Gause, “Beyond Sectarianism”; Salloukh, “Overlapping Contests and Middle East International Relations”; and Wright, “Imagining a Remapped Middle East.”
17. Gause, “Beyond Sectarianism”; Ryan, “The New Arab Cold War”; Stephens, “The Arab Cold War Redux”; Santini, “A New Regional Cold War”; Salisbury, “Yemen and the Saudi–Iranian ‘Cold War”; and Koebl, “Saudi Arabia and Iran: The Cold War of Islam.”
18. Rogers, “Religious Dimensions of Political Conflict and Violence.”
19. Abboud, Syria; Hokayem, Syria’s Uprising; Phillips, Battle for Syria; and Malmvig, “Wars within Wars.”
20. Lesch, Syria, 69–86.
21. Lister, The Syrian Jihad, 221–60.
22. Halliday, Nation and Religion.
23. Phillips, Everyday Arab Identity; and Phillips, Battle for Syria.
24. Droz-Vincent, “State of Barbary.”
25. 65% were Sunni Arab, 10% Sunni Kurds.
26. Lynch, Voices of the New Arab Public, 1–28.
27. Sullivan, “Hezbollah in Syria.”
28. Barnard et al., “An Eroding Syrian Army”; and MEE, “Who are the Pro-Assad Militas.”
29. Cockburn, “West Suspends Aid”; Kenner and O’Toole, “The Race to Raqqa.”
30. Ziadeh, “Revolution in Syria.”
31. Lund, “The Free Syrian Army.”
32. Phillips, Battle for Syria, 149.
33. Mahmood and Chulov, “Syrian War Widens Shia-Sunni Schism.”
34. Black and Roberts, “Hezbollah is Helping Assad.”
35. Valbjørn, “Arab Nationalism(s).”
36. Phillips, Battle for Syria, 161.
37. Weiss and Hassan, ISIS, L2044.
38. Chabkoun, “Syrian Revolution’s Path.”
39. Landis, “Zahran Alloush.”
40. McCants, “Gulf Charities.”
41. Pierret, “Salafi Jihadism.”
42. Dickson, “Turkey Turns Blind Eye.”
43. Pierret, “Salafi Jihadism.”
44. Kirk, “Iraq and Syria”; and Hassan, “ISIL and the Numbers Game.”
45. Jane’s Intelligence Review, “SDF Plays Central Role.”
46. Haid, “The Ramifications of the SDF”; Balanche, “From Qamishli to Qamishlo.”
47. Al-Abed, “Syria’s Assyrians.”
48. Ibid.
49. New York Times, “Who are the Turkmen.”
50. Arpacık, “Turkey, Syrian Turkmen Team Up.”