Enemy within the gates: militarism, sabotage, subversion and counter-subversion in South Africa, 1939-1945

ABSTRACT

In September 1939, when the Union of South Africa entered what became the Second World War, the country was confronted with wide-spread political dissent and anti-war resistance which threatened internal security and stability. Incidents of violence, sabotage, riots, bomb explosions, cutting of tele-communication lines and constant militarism designed to thwart the country’s war effort were reported. These incidents were perpetuated by the disaffected radical Afrikaner nationalists who opposed the Union’s war policy, particularly the militant Ossewabrandwag (OB) led by Dr Johannes Frederik Janse (Hans) van Rensburg, in collaboration with Nazi espionage agents. The government of General Jan Christiaan Smuts implemented multi-faceted security arrangements, which included passing the War Measures Act, unleashing the security services and adopting the internment policy to subdue the militants and preserve internal security. This article examines the development of anti-war resistance and militarism in the Union and reflects on the counter-subversive efforts by the Smuts government to preserve internal security during the Second World War. Ultimately, given the magnitude of the anti-war destabilisation campaign, this analysis illustrates how and why the Smuts government survived a two-front war and managed to sustain the war effort.

KEYWORDS:

• South Africa
• militarism
• sabotage
• subversion
• counter-subversion
• internal security

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. HT Marwick, War and Social Change, 6, 12.

2. HT Union of South Africa, Proclamation no. 197 of 1939, Union Government Gazette Extraordinary, vol. 117, no. 1344, 6 September 1939.

3. HT “Sabotage Plot in TVL,” Cape Argus, 29 January 1942; “Death Penalty for Bomb Saboteurs. Rand’s Night Explosions,” Cape Times, 30 January 1942. See also Visser, OB, 100–11.

4. HT South African Department of Defence Archives, Pretoria (hereafter DODA), Army Intelligence Archives, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records Bureau Summary, 7 February 1942.

5. HT Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, v, 24; Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 209–30. See also Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika. 139–60.

6. HT Van der Waag, A Military History, 176.

7. HT Simpson, South Africa Fights, 53.

8. HT Malherbe, Never a Dull Moment, 215.

9. HT Reitz, No Outspan, 240–45.

10. HT Roberts and Trollip, The South African, 4.

11. HT Visser, OB.

12. HT Strydom, For Folk and Führer.

13. HT Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, chapter 6.

14. HT Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 3–9.

15. HT Furlong, “Pro-Nazi Subversion,” 26–40; Furlong, “Apartheid, Afrikaner Nationalism,” 207–22.

16. HT Van der Schyff, ed, Geskiedenis van die Ossewa-Brandwag.

17. HT Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel, chapters 21–2, 29.

18. HT Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel, 353–62.

19. HT Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 209–30.

20. HT Harrison, “On Secret Service,” 1318–49.

21. HT Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies.

22. HT Shear, “Colonel Coetzee’s War,” 222–48.

23. HT Grundlingh, “The King’s Afrikaners?,” 351–65; Shear, “Colonel Coetzee’s War,” 222–48.

24. HT For details on the historical Afrikaner struggles against the British, see Van der Waag, A Military History; Gilomee, The Afrikaners; Liebenberg and Spies, South Africa in the 20^th Century; Barber, South Africa in the Twentieth Century; Davenport and Saunders, South Africa: A Modern History.

25. HT DODA, Union War Histories (hereafter UWH), Box 265, B.I. 20, Internal Security, Intelligence Summaries, 21 September 1940; DODA, Chief of General Staff, War (hereafter CGS War), Box 47, 12/4, Potchefstroom Disturbances, 9 October 1940.

26. HT UCT, Sir Patrick Duncan Papers, BC 294, A27.1–6, Memorandum on House of Assembly Debates, 6 September 1939.

27. HT Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 209–30. See also Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 119–60; Malherbe, Never a Dull Moment, 213–15.

28. HT See Davenport, “The South African Rebellion,” 73–94; Grundlingh and Swart, Radelose Rebellie?; Fedorowich, “Sleeping with the Lion?,” 71–95; Fokkens, “The Role and Application”; Fokkens, “Afrikaner unrest,” 123–42.

29. HT Van der Waag, A Military History, 174.

30. HT University of KwaZulu-Natal (hereafter UKZN), Killie Campbell Archives and Manuscripts (KCM), Durban, E.G. Malherbe papers, 444/7, KCM 56975 (87–100), “Secret Military Intelligence Reports on the Ossewabrandwag,” c1940-5; Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 209–30; Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 119–60.

31. HT Grundlingh, “The King’s Afrikaners?,” 353.

32. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942.

33. HT National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria (hereafter NASAP), Field Marshall J.C. Smuts papers, A1, vol. 246, Smuts to A.B. Gillett, 13 September 1939; DODA, CGS (War), Box 47, 12/4, Potchefstroom Disturbances, 9 October 1940; DODA, CGS (War), Box 47, 12/4, Johannesburg Disturbances, 19 March 1941.

34. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 47, 12/4, Johannesburg Disturbances, 19 March 1941.

35. HT Van der Schyff, Geskiedenis, 176.

36. HT University of Cape Town, Jagger Library, Archives and Manuscripts (hereafter UCT), H.G. Lawrence papers, BC 640, E5. 47, G.C. Visser, Strictly Confidential Report on the Affidavit of Dr Luitpold Werz, 25 November 1946; See also Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies, 16–78; Harrison, “On Secret Service,” 1318–49; Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 209–30.

37. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5.78, Statement about Activities of Henri Jacques (Hans) Rooseboom during the period 9 October 1939 to 28 June 1942; DODA, UWH, Box 279, B.I. 30, Intelligence Summary, October 1939; Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies, 16–78.

38. HT Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel, 353–62; Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies, 41–2.

39. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 46, I. 40, Censorship Summary Digest, 14 March 1941; UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 47, Affidavit of Dr Luitpold Werz, 25 November 1946. See also Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies, 51–53; Harrison, “British Radio Security,” 58–60.

40. HT Marx, ““Dear Listeners in South Africa,” 158.

41. HT Van der Schyff, Geskiedenis, 2–18.

42. HT Van der Schyff, Geskiedenis, 37–38, 156–58.

43. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 83–4, “Ossewabrandwag: Origins, Development and National Political Aims,” Report by Dr Jack S. Harris, a “special assistant” in the United States Office of War Information in South Africa on the Interview with Dr. J.F.J. van Rensburg, Kommandant-General of the Ossewabrandwag, 5 June 1944; UKZN, Malherbe papers, 444/7, KCM 56975 (87–100), Secret Military Intelligence Reports on the Ossewabrandwag, c1940-5; Die Ossewa-Brandwag: Vanwaar en Waarheen, 29 June 1942, 3–15. For further details on the OB’s history, see Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel and Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika.

44. HT DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20, Intelligence Summary, 5 January 1940.

45. HT DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20, Intelligence Summary, 18 May 1940.

46. HT “Van Rensburg pins hope on Nazi Victory,” Rand Daily Mail, 5 August 1942.

47. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 47, Affidavit of Dr Luitpold Werz, 25 November 1946; Kleynhans, Hitler’s Spies, 16–78.

48. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E3.262, Otto von Strahl Report, “Protect Your Home Country,” 18 July 1941; Fokkens, “Afrikaner unrest,” 132; Van der Schyff, Geskiedenis, 37–8.

49. HT See note 32 above.

50. HT “Bomb Damage to 17 shops,” Rand Daily Mail, 22 July 1940.

51. HT “Explosives Seized on the Rand,” The Star, 27 July 1940.

52. HT “Nine Explosions within a Month,” Rand Daily Mail, 1 August 1940; “Narrow Escapes in Krugersdorp Dynamite Outrages,” Rand Daily Mail, 12 August 1940.

53. HT “The Dynamite Outrages,” The Star, 20 August 1940; “Mine Pipeline damaged by Dynamite,” Rand Daily Mail, 19 August 1940.

54. HT “Explosion at Police Barracks,” Rand Daily Mail, 11 September 1940.

55. HT “Delayed-Action Bomb,” Rand Daily Mail, 29 September 1940.

56. HT “Sabotage in Rand Arms Factory,” Rand Daily Mail, 21 October 1941.

57. HT “Explosions on Natal Main line,” Rand Daily Mail, 24 October 1941.

58. HT “Two more Bomb Outrages,” Cape Times, 27 December 1941.

59. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; Visser, OB, 54–66; Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 145–47; Fokkens, “Afrikaner unrest,” 132.

60. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942; DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I.22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 11 August 1943.

61. HT “Behind Police Arrests. Connection with O.B. Stormtroops,” Cape Times, 1 December 1941; “Sabotage Plot in the TVL,” Cape Argus, 29 January 1942; “Police Information about Saboteurs,” Cape Times, 3 February 1942; “Dynamiters were Organised,” Rand Daily Mail, 25 May 1942; “More Defence Evidence in Explosive Trial,” The Star, 8 July 1942; “Pretoria Power Breakdown,” Rand Daily Mail, 23 February 1943; “Attempt to Burn Down Court,” The Star, 16 February 1943; “Gallon Drums of Petrol in Train Fire,” Rand Daily Mail, 16 July 1943.

62. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942; DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I.22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; “Sabotage Plot in the TVL,” Cape Argus, 29 January 1942; “Incendiarism in Pretoria”, Cape Argus, 11 February 1942; “Rand Night of Explosions,” Cape Times, 30 January 1942.

63. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942.

64. HT “Three Bomb Outrages,” Cape Times, 21 May 1942.

65. HT Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 143.

66. HT See note 63 above.

67. HT “Women and Four men Detained,” Rand Daily Mail, 30 May 1942.

68. HT “U.P. Branch Offices Burned Down,” Rand Daily Mail, 16 June 1943.

69. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 11 August 1943.

70. HT See note 60 above.

71. HT Visser, OB, 134–37; Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, 221.

72. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 11 August 1943.

73. HT University of South Africa (Unisa), Archives and Manuscripts, South Africa United National Party (UP) Archives, Intelligence Reports, 1941–1946, “OB Determined to be “Action Front” of all Afrikanerdom,” South African Press Association, n.d.; “Dr Van Rensburg Denies Rebellion Talk,” anon; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942; “Saboteurs are Soldiers of the Future Republic,” Rand Daily Mail, 10 August 1942”, “Nature of the O.B. Dr Van Rensburg Explains,” The Star, 11 August 1942.

74. HT See note 63 above.

75. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I.22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942.

76. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 18 February 1942; DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I.22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, 220–1; Visser, OB, 100–11.

77. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 46, I. 40, Censorship Summary Digest, 14 March 1941.

78. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 132, Col Thwaites to Lt Gen (Andries) Brink, 17 November 1939.

79. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 132, Memorandum, Security of Own Forces, n.d; DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20, Intelligence Summaries, 17 November 1939; NASAP, Archives of the Department of Justice (hereafter JUS), Box 1506, 1/62/39, “European War, 1939: Defence Rifle Association,” Confidential Report of the Magistrate, J.G. de Vries, 10 October 1939.

80. HT DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20, Intelligence Summaries, 16 December 1939.

81. HT DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20, Intelligence Summaries, 8 December 1939.

82. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 46, I. 40, Censorship Summary Digest, 14 March 1941.

83. HT UKZN, Malherbe papers, 441/10, KCM 56974 (861), “Anonymous Letters to Soldiers and their Relatives,” Director of Military Operations and Intelligence to Director of Information (Bureau), 15 March 1941; DODA, War Diaries (WD) vol. 1, Box 296, Military Censorship Summary, 20 February 1941.

84. HT UKZN, Malherbe papers, 441/10, KCM 56974 (861), “Anonymous Letters,” 15 March 1941; “False Reports on Casualties,” The Star, 21 November 1941.

85. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 42, 10/4, The Birth of South Africa’s Army, 1939/40, 6 September 1940.

86. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 83, Interview with Dr. J.F.J. van Rensburg, 5 June 1944; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/6, Internal Security, 1 September 1940; Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, 24; Visser, OB, 13–4; Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel, 332–33 and 345–6.

87. HT “Brutal Attack on Soldier,” Cape Argus, 16 September 1940.

88. HT “Incidents in Free State Towns,” Rand Daily Mail, 19 December 1941.

89. HT Visser, OB, 35.

90. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 25 January 1941; Visser, OB, 35.

91. HT DODA, CGS, (War), Box 47, 12/4, (1), Disturbances at Potchefstroom, 10 October 1940.

92. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, Fortnightly Intelligence Report, 23 April 1941; Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika, 144.

93. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 47, 12/4, (1), Johannesburg Disturbances, Jan-Feb 1941, 19 March 1941.

94. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 47, 12/5, (1), “Friction between Civilians and Soldiers,” Reports by Magistrates of Piet Retief, Oudtshoorn and George, September to December 1940.

95. HT Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 212–3; Van der Waag, A Military History, 179.

96. HT Van der Waag, “South African Defence,” 129–55.

97. HT See note 22 above.

98. HT Garcia, “Airpower in the Union of South Africa,” 5; Furlong, “Allies at War?,” 18.

99. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 132, “Statement of the Local Military Position on 7 September 1939 and Steps taken thereafter,” Report by J.J. Collyer, the Military Secretary to the Prime Minister, Hon. J.C. Smuts.

100. HT DODA, Diverse Group 1, Box 17, M (O) 3/1, East African Appreciation: Internal Security and General Morale, 4 January 1940, 17.

101. HT Simpson, South Africa Fights, 104.

102. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E3.262, “Protect Your Home Country,” 18 July 1941; Von Strahl, Seven Years, 96; Marx, ““Dear Listeners,” 148–72.

103. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E.5, “Official White Book on Nazi and Nazi Propaganda in South Africa, 1933–1939,” vols. 1–5, 1945.

104. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 223, 49/3, “Urgent Precautionary Measures,” 17 March 1939.

105. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 223, 49/1, “Internal Security Measures,” Stallard to Pirow, 1 August 1939.

106. HT Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, VII, 33.

107. HT DODA, UWH, Box 276, B.I. 28, “Memorandum for the Prime Minister regarding Statements of Opposition Speakers on the War Issue,” press summaries from 1940–1943.

108. HT DODA, UWH, Box 265, B.I. 20 Intelligence Summary, 18 May 1940.

109. HT Union of South Africa, Proclamation No. 197 of 1939, Union Government Gazette Extraordinary, vol. 117, no. 1344, 6 September 1939; “Smuts Cabinet Sworn In,” Cape Times, 7 September 1939.

110. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E3.2, “Notes on Matters Discussed with Smuts, 10:20 to 11:00 am,” 18 September 1939.

111. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 224, 49/15, Memorandum on Intelligence Records and Clearance Bureau (IRB) 22 October 1942.

112. HT NASAP, JUS, Box 1506, 1/56/39, “Outbreak of War,” General Minute No. 27, 11 September 1939.

113. HT Union of South Africa, Government Gazette Extraordinary, No. 2679, State of Emergency, Proclamation No. 201, September 1939; Union of South Africa, War Measures Act, No. 13, April 1940.

114. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, “Report of Committee on Internal Security,” Lawrence to Smuts, 1 June 1940; Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel, 332–34.

115. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E3. 158, “Meetings of Cabinet and Internal Security Committee,” 23 May 1940.

116. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC 640, E3. 4, “Second Meeting of Cabinet Committee,” 5 October 1939.

117. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 144, Union of South Africa, Report on the Postal and Telegraphic Censorship, 4 September 1940; DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 21, I. 19, CE2/2, Censorship Regulations, 5 June 1940.

118. HT DODA, Personnel File, P1/3653/6, Thwaites, B.W, Van Ryneveld to the Minister of Defence (Oswald Pirow), April 1937; DODA, UWH, Box 86, MS 2, Allowances – War Appointments, Quartermaster General to Heads of Sections, 7 October 1939.

119. HT DODA, UWH, Box 86, MS 2, Organisation – Defence Headquarters, Maj Gen P. Van Ryneveld to Heads of Sections, 8 February 1940.

120. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 50, Instruction issued by Van Ryneveld, DHQ Sections, Intelligence Sections, 8 February 1940.

121. HT UKZN, Malherbe papers, 432/1, KCM 56974 (14) Record of Service Notes; Fokkens, “The Role and Application,” 120; Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 212–15.

122. HT Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, 101–02; Fokkens, “Afrikaner unrest,” 133–4.

123. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 224, 49/13, “The Story of the Essential Services Protection Corps (ESPC), 2 December 1941”; Martin and Orpen, South African Forces, 34.

124. HT DODA, CGS (War), Box 224, 49/13, “The Story of ESPC,” 2 December 1941.

125. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC 640, E.3, 188, “Memorandum on Internal Security, Suggested Scheme,” Lawrence to Smuts, 12 June 1940.

126. HT For details, see Monama, “Civil Defence and Protective Services,” 82–108.

127. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC 640, E3. 253, “National Security Regulations,” November 1940; “New Security Code,” The Star, 14 December 1940; “National Security Code,” Cape Argus, 4 February 1941.

128. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 10 February 1941; Union of South Africa, Government Gazette Extraordinary, no. 2851, February 1941.

129. HT DODA, Secretary for Defence Archives (hereafter DC), Box 3841, DF 1887, Secretary for Defence to all Heads of Sections and Os.C. Commands, Circular No. 1 of 1941, 19 March 1941; DODA, CGS (War), Box 223, 49/1, “Internal Security Measures, Declaration Regarding the Association known as “Die Ossewabrandwag’,” 19 March 1941.

130. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 45, “Nazi Activities in the Union of South Africa before and during the War,” 1 February 1946.

131. HT “Internment Policy of the Government,” Natal Mercury, 7 February 1940; “Union’s Internment Policy,” Cape Argus, 24 April 1940; “Round-up of Subversive Elements,” The Star, 30 May 1940.

132. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 18 February 1942; NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 144, Union of South Africa, Report on the Postal and Telegraphic Censorship, 4 September 1940; DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 50, I. 44, History of Censorship, 31 March 1943; Fokkens, “Afrikaner unrest,” 140.

133. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 18 February 1942; “Coup d’etat by OB Scotched,” Cape Times, 1 December 1941; Unisa, UP Archives, “Secret Army for Coup d’etat,” SAPA report, 3 June 1942; “Death Penalty for Bomb Saboteurs,” Cape Times, 30 January 1942.

134. HT “Coup d’etat by OB Scotched,” Cape Times, 1 December 1941.

135. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 18 February 1942.

136. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; Unisa, UP Archives, “Stormjaers Camps and Lectures,” South African Press Association report, 5 June 1942.

137. HT DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 18 February 1942.

138. HT NASAP, Archives of the Union Executive Council (hereafter URU), Box 2002, 367, Measures for Perpetrators of Acts of Violence and Sabotage, December 1941; NASAP, URU, Box 2023, 1534, Proclamation relating to War Measure No. 37, April 1942.

139. HT NASAP, URU, Box 2034, 2062, Trial of Serious Cases of Sabotage, June 1942; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 18 February 1942; “Death Penalty on Bomb Saboteurs,” Cape Times, 30 January 1942.

140. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; “Death Penalty for Bomb Saboteurs,” Cape Times, 30 January 1942.

141. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; “Murder to intimidate Witness,” Cape Times, 2 March 1943.

142. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records, 7 February 1942; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 11 August 1943; “Behind Police Arrests,” Cape Times, 22 January 1942.

143. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 132, Memorandum for Cabinet Sub-Committee on Publicity, 8 November 1939; also Smuts papers, A1, vol. 144, Memorandum on the Bureau of Information: Present Activities, 23 August 1940; Union of South Africa, Debates of the House of Assembly, vol. 40, August-September 1940, col. 1247; “The South African Bureau of Information, Interview with the Director, Arthur Wilson,” The Nongqai, June 1942.

144. HT See Monama, “South African Propaganda Agencies,” 145–67.

145. HT DODA, Army Intelligence, Box 24, I. 22, Intelligence Records; 1 March 1943; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 11 August 1943.

146. HT DODA, CGS, Box 93, 169/7, “Fortnightly Intelligence Reports,” 11 August 1943; Fedorowich, “German Espionage,” 222; Van der Waag, A Military History, 179–82.

147. HT Unisa, UP Archives, Intelligence Service Reports by Capt G.H. Ribbink, 17 June 1942.

148. HT Van der Waag, A Military History, 177–80.

149. HT NASAP, Smuts papers, A1, vol. 261, General Elections, 11 July 1943; DODA, CGS, Group 2, Fortnightly Intelligence Reports, 11 August 1943. For details, see F.D. Tothill, “The 1943 General Election,” (MA Thesis, University of South Africa, 1987).

150. HT UCT, Lawrence papers, BC640, E5. 49–50, “Summary on Internments and Releases during the year ending 22 December 1945,” 12 January 1946.

151. HT “Incendiarism,” Cape Argus, 4 March 1942; “Sentence to Death,” The Star, July 1942; “Government Praised by Afrikaner Party,” Rand Daily Mail, 5 August 1943.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Fankie Monama

Fankie Monama is a senior lecturer in the Department of Military History, Faculty of Military Science at Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He is the Deputy Director of the Second World War Research Group, southern African Chapter. His research interests are civil defence, subversion and counter-subversion, war propaganda and the utilisation of multi-media platforms to influence public opinion during the Two World Wars.