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Original Articles

Re-examining the costs and value ratios of owning and occupying buildings

Pages 230-245 | Published online: 03 Feb 2007
 

Abstract

Average ratios, over the whole life of the assets, of construction cost to facility management cost to the cost of operating buildings to value added by that operation, for buildings of a given function, are potentially useful. They provide a benchmark or norm for those making key decisions about getting best whole-life value for money from a proposed new building, and a starting point for research to discover the reasons for a variance in the ratios in individual buildings about the means. Such ratios and research can be the basis for the case that ‘better buildings’ can add more to whole-life value than they add to cost. It is unfortunate, therefore, that in the UK one particular proposition about ‘typical’ ratios (that they are, respectively, of the order, for most workplace buildings, of 1 (construction)/5 (facility management)/200 (operation)), has become widely cited and accepted amongst policy-makers and practitioners. It is argued here that these proportions are exaggerated, and that the difference of mean ratios between buildings of different functions is sufficient to require function-specific ratios. An economically valid conceptual framework is set out to classify costs. This framework is then applied to the best available datasets for Central London office buildings (finding that in this case 1/1.5/15 is approximately the mean proportions appropriate for benchmarking purposes). It is suggested how this common framework can be applied to analyse data and calculate mean ratios for buildings of any function, in any country. This whole-life economic cost and value method is compared with another method in widespread use by building occupiers: the ‘total costs of occupancy’ method. Propositions about how ‘good design’ might affect whole-life value for money can be explored if both benchmark and single-project data exist for the ratios of the costs of operation to construction costs, on the one hand, and of value added to costs of operation, on the other. Although broadly adequate data exist for most building functions on construction cost and for some building functions on facility management cost, there is a lack of adequate published data on both operating costs and the value added of buildings. To address this problem, a programme of research is recommended to fill these gaps.

Les ratios moyens, sur le cycle de vie des actifs, des coûts de construction par rapport aux coûts de gestion des installations par rapport aux coûts d'exploitation des immeubles par rapport à la valeur ajoutée par cette exploitation, pour des immeubles ayant une fonction donnée, peuvent s'avérer utiles. Ils fournissent des points de référence ou une norme pour ceux qui prennent les décisions clés relatives à l'obtention de la meilleure optimisation des ressources durant le cycle de vie d'un nouvel immeuble en projet, et un point de départ pour que la recherche découvre les raisons d'un écart dans les ratios entre chaque immeuble concernant les moyens. Ces ratios et cette recherche peuvent permettre de plaider en faveur du fait que ‘de meilleurs immeubles’ peuvent ajouter davantage à la valeur du cycle de vie qu'ils n'ajoutent aux coûts. Il est par conséquent regrettable qu'au Royaume-Uni une proposition particulière concernant les ratios ‘types’ (ceux qui sont, pour la plupart des immeubles à usage professionnel, respectivement de l'ordre de 1 (construction)/5 (gestion des installations)/200 (exploitation)) s'est trouvée largement citée et acceptée parmi ceux qui prennent les décisions comme ceux qui les appliquent en pratique. Il est ici soutenu que ces propositions sont exagérées, et que la différence des ratios moyens entre les immeubles ayant des fonctions différentes est suffisante pour nécessiter des ratios spécifiques selon la fonction. Un cadre conceptuel économiquement pertinent est présenté pour classer les coûts. Ce cadre est ensuite appliqué aux meilleurs ensembles de données disponibles pour les immeubles de bureau du Centre de Londres (en constatant que dans ce cas 1/1,5/15 sont à peu près les rapports moyens appropriés aux fins d'évaluation des performances). Il est suggéré comment ce cadre commun peut être appliqué pour analyser les données et calculer les ratios moyens d'immeubles ayant quelque fonction que ce soit, dans n'importe quel pays. Cette méthode utilisant le coût et la valeur économique du cycle de vie est comparée à une autre méthode largement utilisée par les occupants des immeubles: la méthode des ‘coûts totaux d'occupation’. Des propositions portant sur la façon dont une ‘bonne conception’ pourrait affecter l'optimisation des ressources du cycle de vie peuvent être étudiées s'il existe à la fois des données de référence et des données spécifiques au projet concernant les ratios des coûts d'exploitation par rapport aux coûts de construction d'une part, et de la valeur ajoutée par rapport aux coûts d'exploitation d'autre part. Bien que des données globalement suffisantes existent pour la plupart des fonctions des immeubles sur les coûts de construction et pour certaines fonctions d'immeubles sur les coûts de gestion des installations, il y a un manque de données adéquates publiées aussi bien sur les coûts d'exploitation que sur la valeur ajoutée des immeubles. Afin de s'attaquer à ce problème, un programme de recherche est recommandé de façon à combler ces lacunes.

Mots clés: valeur ajoutée, coûts des actifs, affectation des immeubles, propriété des immeubles, modèle d'entreprise, ratios des coûts, coûts des projets, valeur immobilière, coûts du cycle de vie, lieux de travail

Notes

1. On the Whole-life Costing webpage of the UK Higher Education Estates (http://www.heestates.ac.uk/goodprac/capital/life.asp), ‘developed by the higher education estates sector to provide a central resource to estates personnel who have the responsibility to maintain the higher education estate’, the ratio is quoted again, this time with the inference that it is relevant to university office buildings: ‘the long-term costs over the life of the asset are more reliable indicators of value for money than the initial construction costs. The Royal Academy of Engineering reports that the typical costs of owning an office building for 30 years are in the ratio of 1 (for construction costs):5 (for maintenance costs):200 (for costs of the operation being carried out in the building, including staff costs)’.

2. A further joint publication by the National Audit Office, CABE, OGC and the Audit Commission (i.e. pretty much all the ‘great and good’ of UK public-sector project procurement advice) two years later simply repeated these ratios claimed for all public buildings (National Audit Office et al., Citation2004).

3. The C, F and S notation is that of the present author. Upper cases are used to represent the total cost over the life cycle or per annum for a whole building; lower cases are used to represent the cost per annum per person employed in the building.

4. For the industry sector ‘Business services and finance’, Office for National Statistics (Citation2004, table 2.2 for 1999) shows total ‘compensation of employees’ as £94.9 billion, at current basic prices, out of a value added of £221 billion. This industry sector corresponds approximately to the sum of industry sections J (Financial intermediation) and K (Business services). Office for National Statistics (Citation2004, table 2.5) shows total employment in J + K as 4.64 million. Dividing the total compensation by the number of employees gives an average compensation per employee of £20 470.

5. If floor area per person is measured in terms of ‘net internal area’ (NIA), then so should construction cost per person. NIA is defined as ‘the total area of building to [the] internal face of external walls excluding areas of lifts, stairs, landlord ducts, WCs, plant and service areas’ (Axcell et al., Citation2001, p. 9). Axcell et al. assume a typical NIA of 14 m2 per person comprises: (1) 7 m2 (50%) effective occupied work area, including 2 m2 ‘local’ ancillary space such as a filing area; (2) 3.5 m2 (25%) primary circulation and other unusable space within the let area; and (3) 3.5 m2 (25%) shared ancillary and amenity space (reception, goods and post handling, conference rooms, catering space).

6. In an economic or opportunity cost perspective, if the time profile of expenditure on construction and FM preceded the time profile of gross rents, then this industry would require capital to finance the time gap. The opportunity cost of the capital required would give the financing costs of the industry, as well as the average discount rate that its firms would use to appraise investments involving expenditure on construction and facility management. One could then calculate the annual gross rent that would have to be paid by tenants to give the firms in the Ownership of Property Industry their required return on capital.

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