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Original Articles

Candidate Images in the 2005 German National Election

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Pages 481-499 | Published online: 04 Feb 2007
 

Abstract

Based on data collected for all national elections between 1961 and 2005, we examine the role of candidate images in shaping voting behaviour in German elections. Our analysis shows that Gerhard Schröder started the campaign on the defensive, but managed to run an impressive race of ‘catch up’ against Angela Merkel, his main competitor. In large measure, his success in winning over voters was due to his ability to mobilise traditional SPD supporters during the course of the campaign with the help of the issue of ‘social justice’, which became a major subject of discussion. However, we also find that the 2005 elections were not primarily about the candidates for the chancellorship. Our analysis reveals that evaluations of the candidates for chancellor played only a small role in shaping voter choices. Contrary to some claims in the literature we find that the importance of candidate orientations in determining German voter choice has not changed dramatically in the last 45 years, and that such ‘candidate effects’ are most powerful in shaping the choices of voters who do not identify with a political party. Thus, the 2005 election reflected the rule rather than an exception with regard to the importance of candidates in explaining voter choice in German elections.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The data used were made available by the Zentralarchiv für empirische Sozialforschung (ZA), University of Cologne and the Forschungsgruppe Wahlen e.V., Mannheim. Neither the principal investigators nor the Zentralarchiv are responsible for any of the analyses or interpretations of the data in this study. Further information on the principal investigators, data collection, and other details can be found at: http://www.gesis.org/ZA/.

Notes

1. Theodor Eschenburg, Zur politischen Praxis in der Bundesrepublik. Band II: Kritische Betrachtungen 1961–1965 (München: Piper, 1966). Karlheinz Niclauß, ‘Bestätigung der Kanzlerdemokratie? Kanzler und Regierungen zwischen Verfassung und politischen Konventionen’, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 20/99 (1999), pp.27–38; Angelika Vetter and Oscar W. Gabriel, ‘Candidate Evaluations and Party Choice in Germany, 1972–94: Do Candidates Matter?’ in Christopher J. Anderson and Carsten Zelle (eds.), Stability and Change in German Elections: How Electorates Merge, Converge, and Collide (Westport, London: Praeger, 1998), pp.71–98.

2. Christopher J. Anderson and Frank Brettschneider, ‘The Likeable Winner versus the Competent Loser. Candidate Images and the German Election of 2002’, German Politics and Society 21 (2003), pp.95–118.

3. Translated by the authors. The German quote is as follows: ‘Alle Werbeaussagen sollten … so stark personalisiert werden, wie es nur irgend möglich ist… Personalisierung des Wahlkampfes und der Werbung bedeutet für die CDU = absolute Konzentration auf Ludwig Erhard.’

4. Max Kaase, ‘Is There Personalisation in Politics? Candidates and Voting Behavior in Germany’, International Political Science Review 15 (1994), pp.211–30.

5. For details on longitudinal data sources, see Frank Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg. Personalisierung–Kompetenz–Parteien: Ein internationaler Vergleich (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2002). For the most part, our analyses are conducted using data for the entire country; when we found differences between East and West Germans, we describe them in the text.

6. Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1960); for an application to the Federal Republic of Germany, see Jürgen W. Falter and Hans Rattinger, ‘Parteien, Kandidaten und politische Streitfragen bei der Bundestagswahl 1980: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Normal-Vote-Analyse’, in Max Kaase and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds), Wahlen und politisches System. Analysen aus Anlaß der Bundestagswahl 1980 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1983), pp.320–421.

7. For discussions of the model in the German context, see also the contributions in Christopher J. Anderson and Carsten Zelle (eds) Stability and Change in German Elections: How Electorates Merge, Converge, or Collide (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1998).

8. Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Charles Lewis Taylor ‘Affektive Parteiorientierung, Kanzlerkandidaten und Issues: Einstellungskomponenten der Wahlentscheidung bei Bundestagswahlen in Deutschland’, in Max Kaase (ed.), Wahlsoziologie heute. Analysen aus Anlaß der Bundestagswahl 1976 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1977), pp.301–47.

9. Moreover, candidate effects should be stronger the bigger the perceived differences between the candidates and the smaller the perceived differences between the parties' issue positions and competencies. These latter attitudes are to a greater degree dependent on the election context than partisan attachments and therefore more likely to exhibit fluctuation. Evidence for this can be found, for example, in the more frequent swing voting among such voters.

10. See Russell J. Dalton and Wilhelm Bürklin, ‘Wähler als Wandervögel: Dealignment and the German Voter’, German Politics and Society 21 (2003), pp.57–75; Russell J. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 3rd ed. (New York: Chatham House, 2002); Russell J. Dalton and Martin Wattenberg (eds), Parties Without Partisans: Political Chance in Advanced Industrial Societies (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000).

11. See, for example, Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert, and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).

12. Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg; Oscar W. Gabriel, and Angelika Vetter, ‘Bundestagswahlen als Kanzlerwahlen? Kandidatenorientierungen und Wahlentscheidungen im parteienstaatlichen Parlamentarismus’, in Max Kaase and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds), Wahlen und Wähler. Analysen aus Anlaß der Bundestagswahl 1994 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1998), pp.505–36; Falter and Rattinger, ‘Parteien, Kandidaten und politische Streitfragen bei der Bundestagswahl 1980’; Kaase ‘Is There Personalisation in Politics?’; Jürgen Lass, Vorstellungsbilder über Kanzlerkandidaten. Zur Diskussion um die Personalisierung von Politik (Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts Verlag, 1995). Oscar W. Gabriel and Katja Neller 2005: Kandidatenorientierungen und Wahlverhalten bei den Bundestagswahlen 1994–2002 in Jürgen W. Falter, Oscar W. Gabriel and Bernhard Wessels (eds), Wahlen und Wähler: Analysen aus Anlass der Bundestagswahl 2002 (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2005), pp.213–43.

13. For all analyses, details on question wording and variable coding can be obtained from Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg.

14. See also Falter and Rattinger, ‘Parteien, Kandidaten und politische Streitfragen bei der Bundestagswahl 1980’, p.332; Wolfgang Jagodzinski, and Steffen M. Kühnel, ‘Zur Schätzung der relativen Effekte von Issueorientierungen, Kandidatenpräferenz und langfristiger Parteibindung auf die Wahlabsicht’, in Karl Schmitt (ed.), Wahlen, Parteieliten, politische Einstellungen (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1990), pp.5–63; Klingemann and Taylor, ‘Affektive Parteiorientierung, Kanzlerkandidaten und Issues’.

15. For question wording and coding of issue orientations and partisanship, see Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg. Vote intention is coded as –5 = vote intention for CDU/CSU, 0 = all respondents except for Christian Democratic and SPD voters as well as respondents without any party identification, + 5 = vote intention for the SPD. Note that this coding of the dependent variable assumes a single dimension of political contestation. We feel that such an approach is justified, given that we are primarily concerned with the impact of chancellor candidate evaluations on support for their (the two major) parties. Following these lines, our independent variables also differentiate between SPD and CDU/CSU supporters and placing supporters of other parties as well as independents in the middle. Note, however, that our results and therefore our conclusions do not change if we measure the impact of our variables on support for the two ‘camps’ of SPD-Greens and CDU/CSU-FDP, with all other respondents in the middle.

16. Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg.

17. These results do not mean, however, that candidates are irrelevant for why people vote the way they do in German elections. For one, these estimations can be criticised for underestimating the importance of candidates for the vote because they only provide estimates of the lower bounds of how much candidate orientations influence the vote. The actual influence is likely to be somewhat greater because candidate orientations also influence the vote indirectly by shaping how voters view issues or evaluate political parties. A good example, which shows how difficult it is to separate candidates, parties, and issues, is the 1990 election. The issue of German unification was strongly connected in voters' minds with both the incumbent Chancellor Helmut Kohl as well as his party, the CDU/CSU. Similar dynamics were at work in the election of 1972, when attitudes toward Willy Brandt and attitudes toward the government's policy toward the Eastern bloc were closely linked.

18. Larry Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants: New Ways of Winning Elections (New York: Basic Books, 1981).

19. See, for example, Dalton and Bürklin, ‘Wähler als Wandervögel’.

20. Donald R. Kinder, ‘Presidential Character Revisited’, in Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds), Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Carnegie Symposium on Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986), pp.233–55; in the German context, see Lass, Vorstellungsbilder über Kanzlerkandidaten, p.60; Hans Mathias Kepplinger, Hans-Bernd Brosius, and Stefan Dahlem, ‘Charakter oder Sachkompetenz von Politikern: Woran orientieren sich die Wähler?’ in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Max Kaase (eds), Wahlen und Wähler. Analysen aus Anlaß der Bundestagswahl 1990 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994), pp.472–505; Angelika Vetter and Frank Brettschneider, ‘‘Idealmaße’ für Kanzlerkandidaten.' ZUMA-Nachrichten 43 (1998), pp.90–115; Kenneth L. Hacker (ed.). Presidential Candidate Images (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004). Oscar W. Gabriel and Katja Neller, ‘2005: Kandidatenorientierungen und Wahlverhalten bei den Bundestagswahlen 1994–2002’, in Jürgen W. Falter, Oscar W. Gabriel and Bernhard Wessels (eds), Wahlen und Wähler: Analysen aus Anlass der Bundestagswahl 2002 (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2005), pp.213–43.

21. Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg; Vetter and Brettschneider, ‘‘Idealmaße’ für Kanzlerkandidaten'.

22. See the description in Vetter and Brettschneider, ‘’Idealmaße' für Kanzlerkandidaten.'

23. Vetter and Brettschneider, ‘’Idealmaße' für Kanzlerkandidaten'; Brettschneider, Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg.

24. Guido Knopp, Kanzler: Die Mächtigen der Republik (München: Bertelsmann, 1999), p.172.

25. See also Helmut Norpoth, ‘Kanzlerkandidaten. Wie sie vom Wähler bewertet werden und seine Wahlentscheidung beeinflussen’ in Max Kaase (ed.), Wahlsoziologie heute: Analysen aus Anlaß der Bundestagswahl 1976 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1977), pp.551–72, in particular, p.552.

26. Volker Hetterich, Von Adenauer zu Schröder–Der Kampf um Stimmen. Eine Längsschnittanalyse der Wahlkampagnen von CDU und SPD bei den Bundestagswahlen 1949 bis 1998 (Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 2000).

27. See also Lass, Vorstellungsbilder über Kanzlerkandidaten, p.127.

28. Hetterich, Von Adenauer zu Schröder–Der Kampf um Stimmen; Ludolf K. Eltermann, Kanzler und Oppositionsführer in der Wählergunst: Empirische Untersuchungsergebnisse zum Bild der Spitzenpolitiker in der Bevölkerung der Bundesrepublik von 1971 bis 1976 (Bonn: Verlag Bonn Aktuell, 1980).

29. Rüdiger Schulz, ‘Wahljahr’94: Eine demoskopische Bilanz', in Heinrich Oberreuter (ed.), Parteiensystem am Wendepunkt? Wahlen in der Fernsehdemokratie (München: Olzog, 1996), pp.37–57; see also Ursula Feist, ‘Wählerstimmungen und Wahlentscheidung 1994. Zeit für den Wechsel?’ in Heinrich Oberreuter (ed.), Parteiensystem am Wendepunkt? Wahlen in der Fernsehdemokratie (München: Olzog, 1996), pp.59–76.

30. Kepplinger, Brosius and Dahlem, ‘Charakter oder Sachkompetenz von Politikern’, p.497.

31. Gabriel and Vetter, ‘Bundestagswahlen als Kanzlerwahlen?’ p.524; Hans-Joachim Veen, ‘Die schwindende Berechenbarkeit der Wähler und die Zukunft des deutschen Parteiensystems’, in Heinrich Oberreuter (ed.), Ungewissheiten der Macht. Parteien, Wähler, Wahlentscheidung (München: Olzog, 1998), pp.42–67.

32. Frank Brettschneider, ‘Wahlkampf und Medienberichterstattung’, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 51–52/05 (2005), pp.19–26.

33. Translated by the authors. The original quote in German is: ‘Wenn ich dann diesen Professor aus Heidelberg höre, wie er sich über Renten verbreitet, der meint – das ist nachzulesen –, man könne die Rentenversicherung doch wie die Kfz-Versicherung organisieren, dann wird darin ein Menschenbild deutlich, dass jedenfalls wir aufs Schärfste bekämpfen müssen. Menschen sind keine Sachen und sie müssen anders behandelt werden, als Sachen behandelt werden’.

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