The Maidan in Movement: Diversity and the Cycles of Protest

Abstract

The Maidan protests provide us with insights into Ukrainian society and the dynamics of mobilisation more generally. Based on the EuroMaidan Protest Participant Survey, on-site rapid interviews with protesters, interviews with politicians, activists and journalists, and focus groups with ordinary citizens and activists, this essay maps the actors, claims and frames of each phase in the protest cycle. It highlights the diversity of actors and the inability of activists and party leaders to coordinate as the central features of the protests. Our analysis reveals the fluid and contingent nature of cleavages commonly portrayed as fixed and politically salient.

Notes

¹ Commonly referred to as the Euromaidan in its early stages.

² The terms ‘ordinary Ukrainians’ and ‘ordinary citizens’ are used by the authors to denote the non-activist, non-politicised citizens of the polity who tend to be generally disengaged from politics (though they might vote in elections), have not been active members of a Social Movement Organisation, and have not consistently participated in previous protests. Included are individuals of all socio-economic, employment and education backgrounds. The term ‘ordinary citizens’ (adapted from Onuch (2014a, 2015a)) draws on Bermeo’s use of the term ‘ordinary people’ (Bermeo 2003).

³ The Donbas includes Luhans’k and Donets’k oblasti in Ukraine.

⁴ Civic Sector activists focus group 2, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁵ See Beissinger (2013) on the Orange Revolution.

⁶ As exhibited in protests by Hromadskyi Sektor (Civic Sector) and Pravyi Sektor (Right Sector)—in front of the Parliament and Presidential Administration respectively in July 2015—demanding the launch of a commission looking into the violence of the Maidan, and further action by the President in the east of the country. Both Social Movement Organisations used the language of ‘the Maidan holding politicians accountable’ (author’s participant observation and informal discussion with Civic Sector activists who participated in protest events on 8, 10, 12 and 13 July 2015).

⁷ Often mentioned in initial rapid interviews and discussions with activists, 26 November–1 December 2013.

⁸ Authors’ interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 6, Kyiv, 26 August 2014.

⁹ See, Razumkov Sociological Polls 2009, 2011–2013, Razumkov Centre, available at: http://www.uceps.org/eng/poll.php?poll_id=90, accessed 29 July 2015.

¹⁰ Collected by Onuch and her team of 20 research assistants from the National University of Kyiv Mohyla Academy and Taras Shevchenko University in Kyiv.

¹¹ While the EPPS team attempted to collect data at scheduled and regular intervals, canvassers had the right to leave the protest site when feeling unsafe or uncomfortable. Supervisors could also call off or suspend surveying if they saw any dangers or if the quality of the survey was compromised in any way.

¹² Due to the nature of conducting surveys during times of mass protest and crisis, there were several issues with imputation of the survey and with its delivery by courier or post. Thus, we only report data imputed by our research team for which we have questionnaires. Despite all due diligence, the context in which the survey was conducted made it impossible to guard against missing data and the possibility of preference falsification associated with repressive regimes (Kuran 1997). Other types of data were collected in order to triangulate the survey findings.

¹³ Two activist focus groups were conducted with Civic Sector activists (mixed gender and age) and one was conducted with Samo Oborona activists (men only). The ‘ordinary citizen’ focus groups were composed of a random group of individuals who listed themselves at the Civic Sector coordination and information booth (as potential volunteers/helpers or just to receive information), during the Euromaidan (and thus, can be considered Euromaidan participants but not activists); the researchers aimed for a mix of age groups and genders.

¹⁴ ‘Yevromaydan-2013. Ukraintsi Samoorhanizuvalysya, Shchob Pidtrymaty Kurs Na Yevropu’, Ukrains’ka Pravda, 22 November 2013, available at: http://www.pravda.com.ua/photo-video/2013/11/22/7002696/, accessed 27 November 2014.

¹⁵ Author’s informal telephone interview with an anonymous journalist and politician, 17 December 2013.

¹⁶ Author’s interview with anonymous leftwing activist 2, Kyiv, 29 August 2014.

¹⁷ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 7, Kyiv, 27 August 2014.

¹⁸ ‘UVAHA! Zbir s’ohodni na Maydani Nezalezhnosti o 22:30 !!! (+video)’, Yuriy Andreyev’s blog post, 21 November 2013, available at: http://blogs.korrespondent.net/blog/pro_users/3289622-uvaha-zbir-sohodni-na-maidani-nezalezhnosti-o-2230-video, accessed 12 February 2016; Ihor Lutsenko’s posts, 21 November 2013, available at: https://www.facebook.com/igor.lutsenko/posts/670281052995887, and https://www.facebook.com/igor.lutsenko/posts/670206513003341, both accessed 12 February 2016; Mustafa Nayem’s posts, 21 November 2013, available at: https://www.facebook.com/Mustafanayyem/posts/10201177280260151, and https://www.facebook.com/Mustafanayyem/posts/10201178184682761, both accessed 12 February 2016.

¹⁹ Also noted in a telephone interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 1, 30 November 2013.

²⁰ Author’s telephone interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 1, 30 November 2013.

²¹ Author’s interview with anonymous Kyiv/Donets’k activist, Kyiv, 12 May 2015.

²² For example, author’s telephone interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 1, 30 November 2013.

²³ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014.

²⁴ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 6, Kyiv, 26 August 2014.

²⁵ Author’s interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 6, Kyiv, 26 August 2014.

²⁶ Such as, The Revolution on the Granite in 1990, Ukraine Without Kuchma in 2001, and the Orange Revolution in 2004, see Onuch (2014a).

²⁷ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014.

²⁸ Author’s interview with anonymous Donets’k-based activist/journalist 2, Kyiv, 14 May 2015.

²⁹ Author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 1, Kyiv, 25 August 2014.

³⁰ Euromaidan participants and supporters both in Ukraine and around the world employed the hashtags #EuroMaidan, #euromaidan, and the Cyrillic #євромайдан to communicate information about protest events in Kyiv, across Ukraine and internationally. For a deeper analysis, see Tucker et al. (2014).

³¹ Holodomor means ‘extermination by hunger’ and refers to the man-made famine in the Ukrainian SSR in 1932–1933 that killed an estimated 2.5–7.5 million Ukrainians.

³² See, ‘Huge Ukraine Rally over EU Agreement Delay’, BBC News, 24 November 2013, available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25078952, accessed 29 July 2015.

³³ Author’s interview with anonymous director of an NGO and long-time Civic Sector activist, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

³⁴ Author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

³⁵ For example, author’s informal telephone interview with anonymous journalist and politician, 17 December 2013.

³⁶ Focus group 1, ‘ordinary’ citizens, Kyiv, 26 August 2014.

³⁷ Author’s interview with anonymous government insider, Kyiv, 26 August 2014.

³⁸ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 3, Kyiv, 22 July 2014.

³⁹ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015.

⁴⁰ Author’s informal telephone interview with anonymous former Yanukovych administration insider, 28 January 2014.

⁴¹ Author’s informal telephone interview with anonymous Civic Sector activist 1, 30 November 2013.

⁴² Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015.

⁴³ ‘Ukraine’s Anti-Government Protesters Stage First Mass Rally of 2014’, Reuters, 1 December 2013, available at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/01/12/uk-ukraine-idUKBREA0B09820140112, accessed 29 July 2015.

⁴⁴ Kyiv International Institute of Sociology (KIIS) macro regions include: West (Chernivests’ka, Ivano-Frankivs’ka, Kmelnyts’ka, Lvivs’ka, Rivens’ka, Ternopils’ka, Volyns’ka and Zakarpats’ka); Center (Cherkas’ka, Chernihivs’ka, Kirovohrads’ka, Kyivs’ka, Poltavs’ka, Sums’ka, Vynnyts’ka and Zhytomyrs’ka); East (Dontes’ka, Kharkivs’ka and Luhans’ka); and South (Dnipropetrovs’ka, Khersons’ka, Kryms’ka, Mykolaivs’ka, Odes’ka and Zaporizhs’ka).

⁴⁵ According to the 2001 census 92.3% and 72.1% of the Kyiv oblast’ and Kyiv city populations respectively are Ukrainian ‘mother tongue’ speakers. Moreover, 92.5% and 82.2% of the Kyiv oblast’ and Kyiv city populations respectively are ethnic Ukrainians. Whilst the census is outdated it is the best available source of information on both language and ethnicity in Ukraine (State Statistics Committee of Ukraine 2001).

⁴⁶ About 15% of the respondents stated that they used both languages equally (not an option in the survey; thus, it is possible that this number would have been larger).

⁴⁷ Surzhyk is a blend of the two languages most often used in casual conversation in Ukraine. It employs mostly Russian words and Ukrainian grammar as well as some slang words.

⁴⁸ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 2, Kyiv, 6 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary citizens’ 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015.

⁴⁹ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 3, Kyiv, 7 July 2015.

⁵⁰ Ukrainian election ballots include the option ‘against all’ and this option was among those reported by survey respondents.

⁵¹ For example, author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁵² For example, author’s interview with anonymous businessman and NGO director who paid for and coordinated medical supplies, Kyiv, 13 May 2015.

⁵³ Author’s interview with anonymous leftwing activist 1, Kyiv, 29 August 2014.

⁵⁴ Focus group Civic Sector activists 2, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁵⁵ Rada HO «Vseukrayins’ke obyednannya Maydanu» (The Council of the NGO ‘All-Ukrainian Union Maidan’) or Council of the Maidan, founded on 22 December 2013, was a council where leaders of civic organisations, political parties, experts and academics came together to discuss events, needs, and coordinate activities or responses. For a list of participants see Appendix 3.

⁵⁶ Author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁵⁷ Author’s interviews with anonymous Civic Sector activist 2, Kyiv, 21 July 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 5, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 6, Kyiv, 26 August 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 7, Kyiv, 27 August 2014; anonymous long-time academic expert, activist and Minister, Kyiv, 21 July 2014; anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁵⁸ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁵⁹ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁶⁰ A Viche was originally a meeting of the citizens of a Kyivan Rus’ town to discuss matters of local import. Throughout Ukrainian history this term has been often used by dissidents and activists for nightly or weekly protest meetings.

⁶¹ Author’s interviews with anonymous Donets’k-based activist/journalist 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; anonymous long-time activist and Minister, Kyiv, 21 July 2014.

⁶² Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁶³ Author’s interview with anonymous leftwing activist 2, Kyiv, 29 August 2014; focus group Civic Sector activists 1, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁶⁴ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary citizens’ 5, Kyiv, 9 July 2015.

⁶⁵ For example, author’s interviews with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 2, Kyiv, 21 July 2014; anonymous leftwing activist 1, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁶⁶ Focus group Civic Sector activists 1, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁶⁷ For example, author’s interview with anonymous long-time academic expert, activist and Minister, Kyiv, 21 July 2014.

⁶⁸ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; and also discussed in focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 5, Kyiv, 9 July 2015; focus group Civic Sector activists 2, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁶⁹ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 5, Kyiv, 9 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 6, Kyiv, 10 July 2015.

⁷⁰ The first official death was already recorded on 22 December: Pavlo Mazurenko died after being beaten by police on 18 December 2013, although this incident was not well known at the time. The three who died on the 21/22 January were Yuriy Verbitsky, Serhiy Nihoyan (Ukrainian born Armenian) and Mikhailo Zhyznevskyy (a Belarusian). These were followed by the deaths of Roman Senik, Viktor Homyak, Bogdan Kalynyak, Alexander Badera and Sergiy Sinenko between 25 January and 15 February. See, Official government list of Nebesnya Sotinya (Heavenly Hundred) and Order of the Nebesnya Sotya, available at: http://iportal.rada.gov.ua/en/news/News/News/page/en/news/News/News/95089.html, accessed 13 February.

⁷¹ It should be noted that several Sotnya’s were made up of entirely women and one such young graduate student M. B. carries the nickname ‘Molotov Princess’, as she helped ‘professionalise’ the Molotov stations. Author’s interviews with anonymous leftwing activist 1, Kyiv, 28 August 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 5, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; anonymous businessman and NGO director who paid for and coordinated medical supplies, Kyiv, 13 May 2015; anonymous female radical activist, Kyiv, 7 July 2015.

⁷² Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁷³ The so-called ‘Banderite’ black and red (or kalyna) coloured flag was one such symbol. It was most prominently used by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Ukraiins’ka Povstans’ka Armiia—UPA), led by Stepan Bandera. The flag was adapted from previous flags and symbols used by Ukrainian Cossacks (such as the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen in 1916) and thus predates the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (created in 1929 in Vienna), the UPA or Bandera (Moroz 2013). It is by many in Ukraine considered a flag symbolising the Ukrainian struggle for statehood and independence and was already used in anti-Soviet, dissident actions. In parts of Ukraine and outside of Ukraine, in particular in Poland and Russia, the flag is seen as a hostile symbol of west Ukrainian ethno-nationalism.

⁷⁴ Author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁷⁵ Author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 3, Kyiv, 25 August 2014.

⁷⁶ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁷⁷ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁷⁸ Focus group Civic Sector activists 2, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁷⁹ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; telephone interview with anonymous Right Sector (Pravyi Sektor) activist, 10 February 2014; focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸⁰ Author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, Member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸¹ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸² See video of Tiahnybok trying to calm down violent protesters in ‘All Things Ablaze: A Documentary’ by Oleksander Techynskyi, Dmitry Stoykow and Aleksey Solodunov (a compilation of live stream content), available at: http://ablaze.honestfish.com.ua/All_Things_Ablaze/All_Things_Ablaze.html, accessed 13 February 2016. Also referenced in interviews with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 3, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; anonymous Civic Sector activist 7, Kyiv, 27 August 2014; anonymous leftwing activist 1, Kyiv, 28 August 2014.

⁸³ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 5, Kyiv, 9 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 6, Kyiv, 10 July 2015.

⁸⁴ Focus group Civic Sector activists 2, Kyiv, 28 August 2014; focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸⁵ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 3, Kyiv, 7 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸⁶ Author’s interview with anonymous HromadskeTV journalist 1, Kyiv, 22 July 2014; interview with anonymous HromadskeTV journalist 2, 26 August 2014.

⁸⁷ Author’s interview with anonymous Kyiv, Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014.

⁸⁸ Focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁸⁹ Author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁹⁰ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 3, Kyiv, 7 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015.

⁹¹ For example, author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁹² ‘Ukraine Protests—Yulia Tymoshenko Returns To Kyiv; Speech at Maidan—22 February 2014’, YouTube, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zg2SaTV-mIg, accessed 15 January 2016.

⁹³ For example, author’s interview with anonymous Samo Oborona activist 2, Kyiv, 25 August 2014; focus group Samo Oborona activists, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁹⁴ ‘Lyudy Postavyly Ul’tymatum: Vidstavka Yanukovycha Do Ranku’, Ukrains’ka Pravda, 21 February 2014, available at: http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/21/7015590/, accessed 21 March 2015.

⁹⁵ For example, author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁹⁶ For example, author’s interview with anonymous political scientist 1, member of the Rada, negotiator during Regime–Opposition Roundtables, Kyiv, 15 May 2015.

⁹⁷ Group interview, mixed Social Movement Organisation activists, Kyiv, 18 July 2014.

⁹⁸ Focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 1, Kyiv, 12 May 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 2, Kyiv, 6 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 3, Kyiv, 7 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 4, Kyiv, 8 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 5, Kyiv, 9 July 2015; focus group ‘ordinary’ citizens 6, Kyiv, 10 July 2015.