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Abstract
This article analyses the relationship between socialist Yugoslavism and national minorities in a crucial phase of Yugoslavia's post-World War II evolution. It focuses on the contested multicultural Upper Adriatic borderland, specifically on the city of Rijeka–Fiume, the main Italian minority centre in the Federation. Considering both local and broader federal dynamics, as well as Yugoslavia's nascent non-aligned foreign policy, this urban-centred analysis suggests that the insistence on Yugoslavism produced significant contradictions in political relations towards minorities, contributing to the evolution of socialist Yugoslavia's ideological and political system in the early 1960s.
The author would like to thank Francesca Rolandi, Alfredo Sasso, Gruia Bădescu, and the two anonymous Europe-Asia Studies reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier drafts of this article. The research for this article was conducted when the author was a post-doctoral research fellow at the University of Rijeka (funded by the Marie Curie FP7-PEOPLE-2011-COFUND programme NEWFELPRO, grant agreement no. 79) and at the University of British Columbia—Okanagan (within the research project ‘Rijeka in Flux: Borders and Urban Change after World War II’, funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada).
Notes
1 The constituent ‘peoples’ of socialist Yugoslavia were Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, and Montenegrins, joined later by Bosnian Muslims. The other national communities living in the country were recognised as national minorities and, from the early 1960s, as ‘nationalities’ (narodnosti).
2 There is a growing new international historiography on Rijeka/Fiume; see for example, Jeličić (Citation2018), D’Alessio (Citation2019), Reill (Citation2020), Le Normand (Citation2021).
3 For an introduction to the scholarship on the ‘Italian exodus’ and the debate on its causes, from the responsibility of the Yugoslav authorities to the element of choice, see Hrobat Virloget et al. (Citation2015).
4 The Yugoslav census from 1948 did not reflect the high number of Italians the city had lost in the previous years.
5 Konac̆ni rezultati popisa stanovnistva od 15 marta 1948 godine: Stanovništvo po narodnosti, Vol. 9 (Belgrade, Savezni zavod za statistiku, 1954); Popis stanovništva 1961. Vitalna, etnička i migraciona obeležja, Vol. 4 (Belgrade, Savezni zavod za statistiku, 1967).
6 ‘Stenografske beleške sa sednice Ideološke komisije’, 8–9 May 1956, p. 36, Arhiv Jugoslavije (hereafter AJ), collection Centralni Komitet Saveza Komunista Jugoslavije—Ideološka komisija, k.5, VIII, II/2-b-87.
7 Edo Jardas in ‘Zapisnik proširenog sastanka Gradskog komiteta SKH Rijeka’, 3 June 1954, p. 8, Državni Arhiv u Rijeci (hereafter HR-DARI) HR-DARI-209, k.29.
8 Between 1924 and 1941 the state border on the river Rječina separated Rijeka, on Italian territory, from Sušak, on Yugoslav territory. The two towns were officially merged in 1947.
9 See for example ‘Referat’ in ‘Materijali sa II rejonske konf SK Zamet 1954’, p. 5, HR-DARI-223, k. 25; ‘Analiza rada i problematika Saveza Komunista rajona Sušak’, 24 October 1954, p. 10, HR-DARI-209, k. 29; ‘Zapisnik sa Plenuma Kotarskog komiteta Saveza Komunista Hrvatske—Rijeka’, 13 November 1959, p. 2, HR-DARI-207, k. 27; ‘Referat za VIII. godišnju konferenciju SKH rajona Sušak’, pp. 9–10, HR-DARI-235, k. 3; ‘Relazione della riunione tenuta il 3 dicembre 1953’, Archivio del Centro di Ricerche Storiche di Rovigno (hereafter ACRS), Fond UIIF 4779/85.
10 ‘Izveštaj Glavnog odbora Saveza Boraca NOR Hrvatske 1955–1960’, AJ, Fond 297, Fasc. 24, pp. 97–8.
11 ‘Proslava desetogodišnjice oslobodjenja i Provog maja u Rijeci’, Novi List, 4 May 1955, p. 1.
12 ‘Svečani miting pred spomenikom oslododjenja u Rijeci’, Novi List, 6 July 1956, p. 1.
13 ‘Svaka nova proslava Dana borca biće nova smotra naših uspeha i izvršenih dužnosti’, Politika, 4–5 July 1956, p. 4; ‘Diskusija o predlozima i idejama za proslavu dvadesetgodišnjice ustanka naroda Jugoslavije’, 14 November 1959, p. 19, AJ, fond 297, br. fasc. 35.
14 ‘Na Trsatu svečao otkrivena spomen-kosturnica i Muzej Narodnooslobodilačke borbe’, Novi List, 6 July 1957, p. 1.
15 ‘U posjetu vjekovima’, Riječki List, 24 May 1950, p. 3.
16 ‘Svečana akademija u Rijeci povodom proslave 150-godišnjice Srpskog ustanka’, Riječki List, 23 February 1954, p. 1.
17 ‘Zapisnik—III. sjednice Savjeta za prosvjetu i kulturu NO grada Rijeke’, 4 March 1954, HR-DARI-86, k. 622; Rijeka Resolution was a political agreement that contributed to the establishment of a coalition between Croatian and Serbian parties in the Austro–Hungarian political arena.
18 ‘Otkrivena spomen-ploča na zgradi bivše Hrvatske čitaonice’, Novi List, 20 December 1955, p. 1.
19 ‘Jadranski institut’, Riječki List, 31 March 1954, p. 3; see also Bratulić (Citation1953, p. 4).
20 Glagolitic inscriptions have been found in central Istria and in the Kvarner region in particular, witnessing the use of the oldest known Slavic alphabet in this area from the twelfth century.
21 See, for example, the letter by Viktor Car Emin to the Council of Science and Culture of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (Federativna Narodna Republika Jugoslavija) government, 19 November 1952, AJ, Fond 317, br. fasc. 82.
22 ‘Riječka Revija’, 18 August 1955, HR-DARI-207, k.1; ‘Zapisnik proširenog sastanka Gradskog komiteta SKH Rijeka’, 3 June 1954, pp. 7–8, HR-DARI-209, k. 29.
23 The name of the party was changed to the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (Savez komunista Jugoslavije) in 1952.
24 ‘La relazione del prof. Eros Sequi alla consultazione dei lavoratori culturali italiani’, La Voce del Popolo, 1948, p. 3.
25 The daily acted as the mouthpiece for the League of Communists of Yugoslavia until the dissolution of Yugoslavia.
26 ‘Relazione della riunione tenuta il 3 dicembre 1953’, p. 5, and ‘Zapisnik sastanka održanog u Talijanskoj uniji o problemima talijanske manjine’, 1953–1954, p. 7, ACRS, Fond UIIF 4779/85.
27 ‘Kulturno prosvetni život italijanske manjine’, 1957, pp. 15–6, AJ, A.CKSKJ, XVIII-K.6/4. See also D’Alessio (Citation2017).
28 ‘Relazione della riunione tenuta il 3 dicembre 1953’, ACRS, Fond UIIF 4779/85.
29 ‘Relazione della riunione tenuta il 3 dicembre 1953’, p. 5, ACRS, Fond UIIF 4779/85.
30 ‘Verbale della riunione della segreteria’, 16 January 1956, pp. 1–2, ACRS, Fond UIIF 1074/73.
31 ‘Riunione del Comitato dell’Unione’, 10 April 1956, p. 8, ACRS, Fond UIIF 4771/85.
32 ‘Verbale dell' VIII Assemblea dell'Unione degli Italiani dell'Istria e di Fiume’, 20 November 1955, p. 2, ACRS, Fond UIIF, 1091/73.
33 ‘Verbale della riunione della segreteria tenuta a Dignano’, 23 October 1956, ACRS, Fond UIIF 1074/73, pp. 2–3.
34 Letter by Libero Verardi to the AgitProp of the Central Committee KPH, 25 September 1952, pp. 1–2, Hrvatski Državni Arhiv (hereafter HR-HDA), HR-HDA-1220, k. 8.
35 ‘Na dnevnom redu: fuzija dva najveća pozorišta u Beogradu’, Večernje Novosti, 13 November 1958; see also Volk (Citation1990, p. 58).
36 ‘Izvještaj Savjeta za prosvjetu i kulturu NO kotara Rijeka za period od 1.IX.1955–31.V.1956’, pp. 1–2, HR-DARI-78, k.13; ‘Jadransko kazalište ili Jadranska Opera’, Novi List, 3 March 1956, p. 3; ‘Prijedlog za nastavljanje rada opere u okviru materijalnih mogućnosti’, Novi List, 8-VI-1956, p. 3.
37 ‘Petogodišnjica Riječkog Narodnog kazališta’, Riječki List, 21 October 1951, p. 3.
38 ‘Zapisnik II. redovne sjednice Savjeta za Prosvjetu i kulturu NO-rada Rijeka’, 5, 6 June 1953, HR-DARI-86, k. 622.
39 See for example, ‘Mi smo uglavnom zadovoljni … ’, 15 dana, n. 27, 1 January 1955, p. 3; ‘Nekoliko misli o repertoaru’, Novi List, 20 March 1955, p. 3.
40 ‘Zapisnik 8. sjednice Savjeta za prosvjetu i kulturu GNO’, 2 September 1952, pp. 1–2, and ‘Zapisnik 10. sjednice Savjeta za prosvjetu i kulturu GNO’, 20 September 1952, pp. 9–10; HR-DARI-86, k. 622 ; ‘Verbale della riunione del comitato esecutivo dell'Unione degli Italiani dell'Istria e di Fiume’, 15 October 1952, pp. 4–5. ACRS, UIIF 1087/73.
41 Letter by the members of the Italian Drama of the Narodno kazalište to Koča Popović, 24 February 1956, Diplomatski Arhiv Ministarstva spoljnih poslova Republike Srbije, Fond Italija, 1956, f. 38.
42 Letter by Edo Jardas, President of the District of Rijeka, to Moša Pijade, President of the Federal Parliament, 29 February 1956, HR-DARI-78, k. 88.
43 ‘Stenografske beleške sa sednice Ideološke komisije’, 8–9 May 1956, p. 51, AJ, Fond Centralni Komitet Saveza Komunista Jugoslavije—Ideološka komisija, k. 5, VIII, II/2-b-87.
44 ‘Verbale della riunione della segreteria’, 3 April 1958, pp. 1–2, UIIF 1076/73.
45 Letter by Osvaldo Ramous to the SSNRH, Rijeka, 12 June 1961, HR-HDA-1228, k. 163.
46 See for example: ‘Stenografske beleške sa sastanka komisije za nacionalne manjine’, 28 February 1957, p. 7, AK A CK SKJ, XVIII-K.1; ‘Verbale della riunione della segreteria’, 17 April 1958, pp. 1–2, ACRS, UIIF 1076/73.
47 ‘Formula originale e unica: incontro diretto tra pubblico e poeti’, La Voce del Popolo, 1 June 1958, p. 5.
48 Significantly, one of the measures that most impacted the city's image, such as the eradication of visual bilingualism, was never reversed.
49 The Fratellanza was established as the artistic and cultural society of the Italians of Rijeka in 1948 and it played a central role for the minority's cultural life in the new socialist system. Due to the evolution of the political climate, as it was for other Italian minority's institutions, the Fratellanza underwent a period of crisis in the mid-1950s.
50 ‘Assegnato alla SACO Fratellanza il Premio Zajc per l'anno 1958’, La Voce del Popolo, 1 May 1958, p. 9; ‘Scroscianti applausi alla Supić per la fratellanza’, La Voce del Popolo, 9 March 1959, p. 4.
51 ‘Aperta la Mostra d'arte figurativa del nostro gruppo etnico’, La Voce del Popolo, 18 January 1962, p. 2; ‘Zapisnik VI sjednice Savjeta za kulturu Narodnog odbora kotara Rijeke’, 7 February 1962, p. 5, HR-DARI-78, k.13.
52 ‘Jedinstvo Naroda Istre i Hrvatskog primorja omogućilo je uspješnu borbu protiv okupatora’, Novi List, 12 June 1961, pp. 1–5.
53 ‘I piccoli fisarmonicisti della Bazovica stasera al C.I.C.’, La Voce del Popolo, 12 January, 1961, p. 5; ‘Coro e solisti di musica operistica domenica alla Casa slovena Bazovica’, La Voce del Popolo, 23 March 1961, p. 5.
54 Untitled document, AJ, Fond CK SKJ, XVIII—K.1/1.
55 ‘Kratak osvrt na problematiku nacionalnih manjina u Hrvatskoj’, 14 March 1957, p. 3, HR-HDA-1228, k. 163.
56 See for example, ‘Izveštaj o toku i rezultatima VII redovnog zasedanja jugo-italijanskog Mešovitog odbora za manjinska pitanja’, 18 March 1961, pp. 9–11, HR-HDA-1228, k. 163.
57 ‘Zapisnik sa sastanka koordinacione komisije za manjinska pitanja kotareva Kopar, Rijeka i Pula’, 5 December 1962, HR-DARI-229, k. 23, p. 3.
58 ‘Stenografski zapisnik sa sastanka Komisije za manjinska i iseljenička pitanja Glavnog odbora SSRNH’, 17 December 1957, pp. 25–30, HR-HDA-1228, k.156; ‘Attività e problemi del dramma italiano’, La Voce del Popolo, 3 July 1958, p. 1.
59 See Narodni odbor kotara Rijeka, HR-DARI-78, k. 161–63.
60 Letter from the UIIF to the Komisija za manjine pri glavnom odboru SSRNH, 28 June 1958, pp. 1–2, HR-HDA-1228, k. 160.
61 ‘Verbale della riunione del comitato dell'Unione degli Italiani’, 4 October 1957, p. 8, ACRS, UIIF 1075/73.
62 Letter by the members of the Italian Drama of the Narodno kazalište to Koča Popović, 24 February 1956, Diplomatski Arhiv Ministarstva spoljnih poslova Republike Srbije, Fond Italija, 1956, f. 38.
63 ‘Zapisnik sa sastanka Sekretarijata Kotarskog komiteta SKH Rijeka’, 7 February 1956, HR-DARI-207, k. 27, pp. 2–3.
64 ‘Informacija o posjeti talijanskog konzula iz Kopra Narodno odboru kotara Rijeka’, 15 December 1960, p. 2, HR-DARI-78, k.161; ‘Kratak osvrt na problematiku nacionalnih manjina u Hrvatskoj’, 14 March 1957, pp. 7–8, HR-HDA-1228, k. 163.
65 ‘Stenografski zapisnik sa sastanka Komisije za manjinska iseljenička pitanja Glavnog odbora SSRNH’, 17 December 1957, HR-HDA-1228, k. 156, p. 20.
66 ‘Stenografske beleške sa sastanka Komisije za nacionalne manjine’, 24 February 1960, p. 40, AJ, A.CKSKJ, XVIII-K.2/1.
67 ‘Prijedlog dotacija za 1962. godinu’, p. 1, HR-HDA-1228, k. 156; Popis stanovništva 1961. Vitalna, etnička i migraciona obeležja, Knj. I. Savezni zavod za. statistiku, Beograd, 1970, p. 12.
68 ‘Stenografske beleške sa sendice Komisije za nacionalne manjine pri CK SKJ’, 24 December 1958, AJ, A CK SKJ; XVIII-k.1.
69 VII Kongres Saveza komunista Jugoslavije, Belgrade, Kultura, 1958, p. 269.
70 ‘Stenografske beleške sa proširenog sastanka Izvršnog komiteta CK SKJ’, 2 March 1959, p. 2, AJ, Fond CK SKJ III/82 (1).
71 ‘Zaključci Izvršnog komiteta CK SKJ o pitanjima nacionalnih manjina’, 24 March 1959, pp. 1–13, AJ, A CK SKJ, XVIII-K.3/1; see also ‘Zapisnik vodjen na sastanku Općinskog komiteta SKH Stari Grad, Rijeka’, 4 May 1959, pp. 1–2, HR-DARI-221, k. 14.
72 ‘Stenografske beleške sa proširenog sastanka Izvršnog komiteta CK SKJ’, 2 March 1959, p. 93, AJ, Fond CK SKJ III/82 (1). It is worthwhile mentioning that in an interview given to the Italian daily newspaper Corriere della Sera in 1988, Antonio Borme—president of the UIIF from 1963 to 1974, when he was ousted—explained: ‘Kardelj told me to push [for Italian minority's rights] and I pushed’ (Borme Citation1992, p. 248).
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Marco Abram
Marco Abram, Post-doctoral Research Fellow, Osservatorio Balcani Caucaso Transeuropa—Centro per la Cooperazione Internazionale, Vicolo San Marco, 1, 38122 Trento, Italy. Email: [email protected]