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Abstract
The introduction of liberal reforms in Slovakia has generated countermovements that build upon nostalgia for state socialism. This essay shows how countermovement emotions can be successfully employed by both reactionary and liberal leaders, provided that they accurately respond to voters’ concerns by mitigating the economic ideology of the free market and reflecting voters’ preferred ways of life. It argues that recent protest movements, whether reactionary or progressive, derive their impetus from the resilient agrarian features of state-socialist modernity. They must therefore be analysed in terms of a historical cultural economy that predates the current crisis of neoliberal capitalism.
This essay has benefited from works produced under ANEXINT, Antropológia vylúčenia a integrácie: Slovensko v kontexte európskych transformácií (The Anthropology of Exclusion and Integration: Slovakia in the Context of European Transformations); Slovak Research and Development Agency, APVV-14-0431 and National Science Centre-founded project no. 014/15/G/HS3/04344, ‘Room for Manoeuvre in State Socialism: Between Adaptation and Experiment’. The material has also been gathered thanks to WOGYMARKET—Workers, Gypsies, and the Market: The Anthropology of New Fascism in Eastern Europe; European Commission FP7-PEOPLE-2013 IOF contract No. 626128. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Chris Hann and two anonymous reviewers for comments on the earlier version of this essay.
Disclosure statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 See Gregory (Citation2009).
2 See also Scheiring in this special issue.
3 See also Ost (Citation2005).
4 The fourth leader, Mikuláš Dzurinda, who managed to benefit from the proportional electoral system to become prime minister twice (1998–2006), was nominated by the second most popular party.
5 ‘Matovič v debate Denníka N: Chcem vládu, čo vydrží, a nie opakovať známe veci o Kollárovi’, dennikn.sk, 3 March 2021, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1782162/matovic-na-debate-dennika-n-chcem-vladu-co-vydrzi-a-nie-opakovat-zname-veci-o-kollarovi/, accessed 23 July 2021.
6 See also Mesežnikov (Citation2020, p. 18).
7 ‘Výsledky parlamentných volieb 2020’, sme.sk, 29 February 2020, available at: https://volby.sme.sk/parlamentne-volby/2020/vysledky, accessed 13 July 2021.
8 ‘Judge Explained to Kotleba Why he is an Extremist’, Slovak Spectator, 14 October 2020, available at: https://spectator.sme.sk/c/22509979/judge-explained-to-kotleba-why-he-is-an-extremist.html, accessed 5 August 2021.
9 ‘Kotleba rastie, jeho voliči začínajú pripomínať mainstream’, dennikn.sk, 8 April 2019, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1436331/kotleba-rastie-jeho-volici-zacinaju-pripominat-mainstream/, accessed 23 July 2021.
10 ‘Historik fašizmu: Tiso nebol fašista, Kotleba jednoznačne je (rozhovor)’, aktuality.sk, 31 October 2019, available at: https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/737020/historik-fasizmu-tiso-nebol-fasista-kotleba-jednoznacne-je-rozhovor/, accessed 23 July 2021.
11 ‘ĽSNS je neonacistická strana, usvedčujú ju jej spojenci i vlastné činy’, dennikn.sk, 31 October 2019, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1634639/lsns-je-neonacisticka-strana-usvedcuju-ju-jej-spojenci-aj-vlastne-ciny/, accessed 23 July 2021.
12 ‘Slovensko—Výsledky 1. kola prezidentských volieb 2019’, aktuality.sk, 16 March 2019, available at: https://volby.aktuality.sk/prezidentske-volby/vysledky-1-kolo/, accessed 13 July 2021.
13 ‘Prezidentské voľby 2019—životopis Mariána Kotlebu’, noviny.sk, 16 March 2019, available at: https://www.noviny.sk/politika/416471-prezidentske-volby-zivotopis-mariana-kotlebu, accessed 13 July 2021.
14 ‘Polícia rozohnala protest extrémistov, Kotlebu zadržali’, korzar.sme.sk, 9 August 2009, available at: https://presov.korzar.sme.sk/c/4966724/policia-rozohnala-protest-extremistov-kotlebu-zadrzala.html, accessed 21 July 2021.
15 ‘Polícia rozohnala protest extrémistov, Kotlebu zadržali’, korzar.sme.sk, 9 August 2009, available at: https://presov.korzar.sme.sk/c/4966724/policia-rozohnala-protest-extremistov-kotlebu-zadrzala.html, accessed 21 July 2021.
16 ‘Vďaka Herr Kotleba, za búranie mýtov o tejto krajine’, branik.blog.sme.sk, 24 November 2013, available at: https://branik.blog.sme.sk/c/343080/Vdaka-herr-Kotleba-za-buranie-mytov-o-tejto-krajine.html, accessed 5 February 2020.
17 The thorough investigation of Kotleba’s political career and activities while holding an office can be found in Vražda (Citation2017).
18 ‘Kotleba napísal Janukovičovi list: Neustúpte!’, aktuality.sk, 31 January 2014, available at: https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/245111/kotleba-napisal-janukovycovi-list-neustupte/, accessed 21 July 2021.
19 ‘ĽSNS: November 89 nezmenil takmer nič’, teraz.sk, 17 November 2018, available at: https://www.teraz.sk/slovensko/lsns-november-89-nezmenil-takmer-nic/361737-clanok.html, accessed 21 July 2021.
20 ‘Na mítingu Kotlebu sa trápnemu humoru, urážkam Rómov a utečencov prizeral plný kultúrny dom’, dennikn.sk, 19 February 2016, available at: https://dennikn.sk/376189/mitingu-kotlebu-sa-trapnemu-humoru-urazkam-romov-utecencov-prizeral-plny-kulturny-dom/, accessed 21 July 2021.
21 ‘Na mítingu Kotlebu sa trápnemu humoru, urážkam Rómov a utečencov prizeral plný kultúrny dom’, dennikn.sk, 19 February 2016, available at: https://dennikn.sk/376189/mitingu-kotlebu-sa-trapnemu-humoru-urazkam-romov-utecencov-prizeral-plny-kulturny-dom/, accessed 21 July 2021.
22 Kotleba’s party became the third extremist party to win seats in the national parliament of an EU member state, after Greece’s Golden Dawn and Hungary’s Jobbik.
23 ‘Aktualizované: Kotlebovci pokračujú, súd nezrušil Ľudovú stranu Naše Slovensko’, webnoviny.sk, 29 April 2019, available at: https://www.webnoviny.sk/sud-rozhodne-o-osude-kotlebovcov-ludovej-strane-nase-slovensko-hrozi-zrusenie/, accessed 21 July 2021.
24 ‘Výsledky parlamentných volieb 2020’, volby.sme.sk, 29 February 2020, available at: https://volby.sme.sk/parlamentne-volby/2020/vysledky, accessed 21 July 2021.
25 ‘Týždeň v médiách: ako Kotleba presviedča ľudí. Je to jednoduché. Hovorí im to, čo chcú počuť’, strategie.hnonline.sk, 22 December 2019, available at: https://strategie.hnonline.sk/blogy/2062454-tyzden-v-mediach-zatial-co-niekoho, accessed 21 July 2021.
26 ‘Slovakia Far Right Leader Marian Kotleba Jailed for Four Years over Nazi Symbols’, Euronews, 12 October 2020, available at: https://www.euronews.com/2020/10/12/slovakia-far-right-leader-marian-kotleba-jailed-for-four-years-over-nazi-symbols?utm_source=news.google.com&utm_campaign=feeds_news&utm_medium=referral, accessed 14 November 2020.
27 ‘Politico 28, Class of 2020’, available at: https://www.politico.eu/list/politico-28-class-of-2020-ranking/, accessed 16 December 2019.
28 ‘Dušan Mikušovič, Čaputová zvíťazila na západe, v strede aj na Gemeri. Šefčoviča podržal východ a Kysuce (+ mapa)’, dennikn.sk, 31 March 2019, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1427772/caputova-zvitazila-na-zapade-strede-aj-gemeri-sefcovica-podrzal-vychod-a-kysuce-mapa/, accessed 21 July 2021.
29 ‘Café people’, as urban liberals are derogatively called by populists, appreciated particularly the early congratulations of Emmanuel Macron and Guy Verhofstadt and the ongoing support of the liberal-conservative former Czech foreign minister Karel Schwarzenberg, and of several ‘liberal’ Catholics in Slovakia and Czech Republic (Szalai Citation2019).
30 The following joke referring to Maroš Šefčovič’s atheist past spread across social media: after second round results were announced early on Sunday morning, Šefčovič felt huge relief, as he was no longer obliged to take part in Mass.
31 ‘Čaputová vyjadrila k nehode hlboký smútok, v myšlienkach je s rodičmi detí’, sme.sk, 13 November 2019, available at: https://domov.sme.sk/c/22259411/nehoda-autobusu-pri-nitre-reakcie-politikov.html, accessed 23 July 2021.
32 ‘Čaputová vyjadrila sústrasť pozostalým: Veľmi ma zarmútila dnešná správa o tragédii v Prešove’, slovensko.hnonline.sk, 6 December 2019, available at: https://slovensko.hnonline.sk/2054118-caputova-vyjadrila-sustrast-pozostalym-velmi-ma-zarmutila-dnesna-sprava-o-tragedii-v-presove, accessed 23 July 2021.
33 ‘Čaputová išla tam, kde nič nie je. Našla šikovných Rómov, pustila sa do kritikov’, 1.pluska.sk, 13 September 2019, available at: https://www1.pluska.sk/spravy/z-domova/zuzana-caputova-stravila-prijemne-dopoludnie-necakali-ste-kym-stretla, accessed 23 July 2021.
34 ‘Hostka: Zuzana Čaputová, E51’, videoportal.joj.sk, 11 November 2019, available at: https://videoportal.joj.sk/inkognito/epizoda/68228-hostka-zuzana-caputova, accessed 23 July 2021.
35 Based on ethnographic observations by the author in his place of residence after the election of Pezinok’s most famous inhabitant for president in 2019.
36 This image has prevailed even though the president’s new partner, the divorced former Greenpeace activist Juraj Rizman, has begun to appear at official events. ‘Prezidetka Čaputová má po rozchode novú lásku: prvá FOTKA zamilovaného páru’, cas.sk, 25 May 2020, available at: https://www.cas.sk/clanok/983985/prezidentka-caputova-ma-po-rozchode-novu-lasku-prva-fotka-zamilovaneho-paru/, accessed 23 July 2021.
37 ‘Zuzana Čaputová sa zúčastnila na svätej omši v rámci Levočskej púte’, spis.korzar.sme.sk, 6 July 2019, available at: https://spis.korzar.sme.sk/c/22161769/zuzana-caputova-sa-zucastnila-na-svatej-omsi-v-ramci-levocskej-pute.html, accessed 23 July 2021.
38 Personal observation of the author.
39 ‘Poradca Čaputovej Burgr: Ťažká otázka na prezidentku? Napríklad čo si myslí o Babišovi’, dennikn.sk, 27 June 2019, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1504256/poradca-prezidentky-burgr/, accessed 23 July 2021.
40 ‘Úvaha (sociálneho demokrata) o Šefčovičovi a Čaputovej’, dennikn.sk, 22 March 2019, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1419278/uvaha-socialneho-demokrata-o-sefcovicovi-a-caputovej/?ref=list, accessed 16 December 2019.
41 ‘Zázrak pod Tatrami?’, respekt.cz, 9 March 2019, available at: https://www.respekt.cz/tydenik/2019/11/zazrak-pod-tatrami?fbclid=IwAR0LN-c2XU0yJdEAA869_bQUObKb-dZAXm_3QDP5BRf6U0r8jGULzn_zuQA, accessed 16 December 2019.
42 For the 2020 political programme Bod zlomu (Turning point) of Progresívne Slovensko, see https://progresivnespolu.sk/bod-zlomu/, accessed 23 July 2021.
43 The party programme can be found at: https://progresivnespolu.sk/bod-zlomu, accessed 23 July 2021.
44 ‘V Trnave po proteste proti ĽSNS napadli politikov PS/SPOLU’, mytranava.sme.sk, 20 January 2020, available at: https://mytrnava.sme.sk/c/22315455/na-mitingoch-lsns-a-iniciativy-proti-fasizmu-bolo-napatie-skoncilo-to-bez-incidentu.html, accessed 23 July 2021.
45 Tabloids and broadsheet media have issued countless reports about this emblematic case; see for example, ‘Grófka Rošková: Vlastná Rodina dáva ruky preč od smeráckej exposlankyne’, plus7dni.pluska.sk, 12 April 2018, available at: https://plus7dni.pluska.sk/domov/grofka-roskova-vlastna-rodina-dava-ruky-prec-aktivit-smerackej-exposlankyne; and award-winning reportage from the respected newspaper, Denník N: ‘Novinárska cena za reportáž—Teraz na východe: hľadal som taliansku mafiu, našiel som slovenskú (reportáž)’, dennikn.sk, 7 March 2018, available at: https://dennikn.sk/1053128/teraz-na-vychode-hladal-som-taliansku-mafiu-nasiel-som-slovensku-reportaz/, accessed 23 July 2021.
46 The issue in Hungary has been well-covered in an investigation by the New York Times (Gebrekidan et al. Citation2019).
47 ‘Máme sa lepšie, viac zarábame a žijeme dlhšie (20 príkladov, ako sa Slovensko zmenilo za desať rokov)’, dennikn.sk, 17 July 2018, available at: https://e.dennikn.sk/1174317/mame-sa-lepsie-viac-zarabame-a-zijeme-dlhsie-20-prikladov-ako-sa-slovensko-zmenilo-za-desat-rokov/feed/, accessed 23 July 2021.
48 ‘Eurobarometer 2018: Record Support for EU’, European Parliament, 23 May 2018, available at: https://multimedia.europarl.europa.eu/en/eurobarometer-2018-record-support-for-eu_N01-PUB-180523-BARO_ev, accessed 23 July 2021.
49 ‘Czechs Exempted, Central Europeans Widely Support EU Membership’, kafkadesk, 7 May 2019, available at: https://kafkadesk.org/2019/05/07/czechs-excluded-central-europeans-widely-support-eu-membership/, accessed 5 August 2021.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Juraj Buzalka
Juraj Buzalka, Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Institute of Social Anthropology, Comenius University, Mlynské luhy 4, 821 05 Bratislava, Slovakia. Email: [email protected]