Regulating Ocean Noise: A Non-traditional Threat to Maritime Security

Abstract

Ocean noise, sometimes referred to as noise pollution, is the intentional or incidental introduction of human-generated (anthropogenic) sound energy into the marine environment. Examples of activities causing anthropogenic ocean noise include commercial shipping, recreational activities, natural resource exploration, underwater construction, scientific research and military sonar use. Whenever man interacts with the world's oceans, he puts sound energy into the water column. While considerable scientific uncertainty exists on the potential affects of anthropogenic ocean noise on the marine environment, some parties allege myriad adverse significant impact on living marine resources. The alleged impact runs the spectrum from reduced commercial fish catch rates to biologically significant behavioural impact, to marine mammal mass strandings, injury and mortality.

In recent years, a number of scientists, environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and international bodies have shown a growing interest in anthropogenic ocean noise and its potential adverse impact on the marine environment, especially living marine resources, such as marine mammals. This interest is the result of advances in acoustic and marine mammal behavioural sciences, aggressive strategic communication campaigns by environmental NGOs, and a series of highly publicised marine mammal mass stranding deaths allegedly linked to scientific research and military exercises. This movement has, in turn, led several international bodies, regional organisations, and international groups to address the issue, convene scientific inquiries, take policy actions and even call for domestic and international regulation of anthropogenic sound-producing activities. Assuming these groups successfully implement international or regional restrictions/prohibitions, what, if any, impact will be there to domestic and international maritime security? Are the relevant parties considering the impact as they propose, formulate and implement ocean noise environmental protection treaties, agreements and policies? Can environmental protection ever be a threat to maritime security?

This article premises that regional or international regulation of ocean noise-producing activities, such as commercial shipping, natural resources exploitation and defence sonar use, constitute a non-traditional threat to domestic and international maritime security. It is a non-traditional threat precisely because most people think of activities purporting to advance environmental stewardship and protection of the world's marine resources as only beneficial endeavours. The anthropogenic ocean noise issue illustrates how some environmental protection actions can present unrecognised and often unaddressed, risks. Part One introduces the topic of anthropogenic ocean noise. Part Two summarises efforts by international and regional bodies to regulate anthropogenic ocean sound-producing activities through existing, modified and new international treaties, conventions and regional agreements. Finally, Part Three concludes that international regulations restricting or prohibiting vital domestic ocean sound-producing activities can result, if not safeguarded, in a significant threat to maritime security, national defence and the global economy.

Notes

1. Harm M. Dotinga and Alex G. Oude Elferink, “Acoustic Pollution in the Oceans: The Search for Legal Standards”, Ocean Development and International Law, 31 (2000): 151, citing US Navy, Office of Naval Research (ONR), Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, February 10-12, 1998 (prepared by R.C. Gisner, Marine Mammal Science Program, ONR, USA). (accessed on May 11, 2009). A copy of Acoustic Pollution in the Oceans: The Search for Legal Standards is available at http://www.awionline.org/oceans/Noise/IONC/Docs/Dotinga_Elferink_2000.pdf. A copy of the ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment is available at http://www.onr.navy.mil/sci_tech/34/341/docs/proceed.pdf

2. Ibid., p. 151.

3. Ibid., p. 20. For a list of marine mammal mass strandings alleged to be coincident with naval or seismic activities see Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), Sounding the Depths II: The Rising Toll of Sonar, Shipping and Industrial Ocean Noise on Marine Life, 8-9 (Table 1.3). Available at http://www.nrdc.org/wildlife/marine/sound/contents.asp, (accessed on May 11, 2009).

4. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4^th Edn. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007).

5. Karen N. Scott, “International Regulation of Undersea Noise”, ICLQ, 53 (April 2004): 287-324, citing Young, University Physics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992), p. 587.

6. Wikipedia. “Sound.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound (accessed October 18, 2009).

7. Dotinga, “Acoustic Pollution in the Oceans”, Supra note [1], p. 153, citing Ten Hallers, Acoustic Disturbance, pp. 10-11; Richardson et al., Marine Mammals and Noise (San Diego: Academic Press, 1995), p. 97.

8. Ambient, or environmental background, noise is noise for which no single source is identifiable. Dotinga, Acoustic Pollution in the Ocean, Supra note [1], p. 153.

9. Ibid., citing Richardson, Supra notes [7], [94]; ONR, “Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment”, Supra note [1], p. 21, citing Richardson 1995, Tavolga, 1960, 1964; Tavolga et al., 1981; Myrberg, 1990a, b.

10. See NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], pp. 18-41; International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), Ocean Noise: Turn it down: A Report on Ocean Noise Pollution, pp. 10-11. Available at http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Regional_Publications/UK/Ocean_Noise_Pubs/asset_upload_file469_48552.pdf (accessed on May 12, 2009); “Underwater Noise as Threat to Cetaceans”, A discussion paper by the ASCOBANS AC Chair 15^th ASCOBANS Advisory Committee Meeting Document AC15/Doc.38 (C) UN Campus, Bonn, Germany, March 31-April 3, 2008, Dist. March 27, 2008. Available at http://www.service-board.de/ascobans_neu/files/ac15-38.pdf (accessed on May 11, 2009). See Scott, Supra note [5], p. 287.

11. Wikipedia, “Noise Pollution”. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollution (accessed October 18, 2009).

12. Wikipedia, “Marine Mammal”. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammal (accessed October 18, 2009).

13. Federal Caucus Statement for the Report of the Advisory Committee on Acoustic Impacts on Marine Mammals, Report to the Marine Mammal Commission (Marine Mammal Commission, USA) (Submitted January 27, 2006), 8, citing Norris, 1969; Norris and Harvey, 1972. A copy of the report is available at http://www.mmc.gov/reports/workshop/pdf/soundFACAreport.pdf (accessed May 11, 2009).

14. Ocean Noise Coalition, “Drowning In Sound: It's Time for International Regulation of Ocean Noise Pollution”, 2. Available at http://www.awionline.org/oceans/Noise/IONC/Docs/05_UN_Noise_Handout.pdf (accessed on May 12, 2009); IFAW, “Ocean Noise: Turn it Down”, Supra note [10], p. 8.

15. Office of Naval Research, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 21.

16. Ibid., p. 2.

17. Ibid., p. 19; NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], p. 38, citing Final Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) International Symposium, “Shipping Noise and Marine Mammals: A Forum for Science, Management, and Technology”, May 18-19, 2004, Arlington, Virginia, USA, Dist. April 27, 2005, (Prepared by Dr. Brandon L. Southall (US Department of Commerce, NOAA Fisheries Acoustics Program). Available at http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/acoustics/shipping_noise.pdf (accessed on May 12, 2009).

18. National Research Council (NRC), Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2005), p. 1.

19. National Research Council (NRC), Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2003), p. 49.

20. NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], p. 36, citing L. Cuyvers, Ocean Uses and Their Regulation (New York: J. Wiley, 1984), p. 113 (Table 5.3 citing Lloyd's Register of Shipping) and National Research Council, Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals, pp. 52-53 (Table 2.2), citing same. See also “Shipping Noise and Marine Mammals: A Forum for Science, Management, and Technology”, Final Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) International Symposium, Supra note [17], p. 9.

21. Ibid., p. 10, citing Westwood et al., 2002; NRDC, “Sounding the Depths II”, Supra note [3], p. 36, citing J. Westwood, B. Parsons and Will Rowley, “Global Ocean Markets”, The Hydrographic Journal (January 2002): 2; IFAW, Ocean Noise: Turn it Down, Supra note [10], p. 10; Final Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) International Symposium, Supra note [16], p. 10.

22. NRC, Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise, Supra note [33], p. 10; NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], p. 36, citing National Research Council, Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals, Supra note [19], p. 74.

23. In a process known as cavitation, ship propellers force the water passing over its blades to cause the formation and rapid collapse of tiny air bubbles. Wikipedia. “Cavitation.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavitation (accessed on May 11, 2009); NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], p. 36, citing R.J. Urick, Principles of Underwater Sound (New York: McGraw Hill, 1983), p. 334. Propeller cavitation produces 83 per cent of the acoustic field surrounding large vessels. Final Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) International Symposium, Supra note [17], p. 10.

24. Ocean Noise Coalition, Drowning in Sound, Supra note [14], p. 5.

25. ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], pp. 11, 22.

26. Ibid.; NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], pp. 3-4, citing Richardson, Supra note [7], pp. 112-113; P. Tyack, W.A. Watkins and K.M. Fristrup, “Marine Mammals, Ocean Acoustics, and Current Regulatory Environment” (Unpublished Essay); Ocean Noise Coalition, Drowning in Sound, Supra note [14], p. 5; IFAW, Ocean Noise: Turn it Down, Supra note [10], p. 10, citing Hildebrand, 2004 (Peak spectral densities for individual ships range from 195 dB for fast moving supertankers to 140 dB for small fishing vessels). For additional literature on ship traffic and source levels see Gray and Greeley, 1980; Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics, 1989; Jennete, 1993; Lloyd's Register of Ships, 1989; Molinelli et al., 1990; Revello and Klingbeil, 1990; Ross, 1987; Scrimger et al., 1990; Scrimger and Heitmeyer, 1991 (cited in ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 11).

27. ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 11, citing Richardson, Supra note [7].

28. IFAW, Ocean Noise: Turn it Down, Supra note [10], p. 6, citing McDonald et al., 2006.

29. ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Sound in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 20, citing Ross, 1987.

30. IFAW, Ocean Noise: Turn it Down, Supra notes [10], [12].

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.; NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], pp. 28-29; ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 12.

33. Ibid.

34. NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra notes [3], [32].

35. US Department of the Navy, “Ocean Stewardship, Understanding Sonar”, http://www.navy.mil/oceans/sonar.html (accessed on May 11, 2009).

36. Sonar, Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sonar (accessed on May 11, 2009).

37. US Department of the Navy, “Understanding Sonar”, Supra note [35].

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid., A list of active sonar systems in use or development by NATO member states is available at NRDC, Sounding the Depths II, Supra note [3], pp. 22-25 (Table 2.2).

40. ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop of the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 12, citing Richardson, Supra note [7].

41. See note [37].

42. US Department of the Navy and US Department of Commerce, Joint Interim Report: Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event of 15-16 March 2000 (released December 2001), iv, http://www.awionline.org/oceans/Noise/Interim_Bahamas_Report.pdf (accessed on May 11, 2009).

43. Ibid.

44. US Department of the Navy, SURTASS-LFA, “Frequently Asked Questions”, http://www.surtass-lfa-eis.com/FAQ/index.htm (accessed on May 11, 2009).

45. ONR, Proceedings of the Workshop of the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment, Supra note [1], p. 12.

46. Ibid.

47. NOAA Final Report, Supra note [17], p. 10.

48. Ibid.

49. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). A copy of the text of the Convention is available at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm. See UN, Oceans and Law of the Sea, at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm; See also Elena M. McCarthy, “International Regulation of Transboundary Pollutants: The Emerging Challenge of Ocean Noise”, Ocean and Coastal Law Journal, 6(2) (2001): 275-277; Dotinga, Supra note [1], pp. 157-167.

50. A list of the parties that have ratified the UNCLOS is available at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm (accessed on May 11, 2009).

51. UNCLOS Articles 192 and 204-206.

52. UNCLOS Article (1)(4).

53. Dotinga and Elferink, Supra note [1], p. 158.

54. McCarthy, Supra note [49], p. 259.

55. Dotinga and Elferink, Supra note [1], p. 159.

56. See McCarthy, Supra note [49], p. 259.

57. Established by the UN General Assembly in 1999, the UNICPOLOS facilitates an annual review of Developments in Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, UN, Oceans and Law of the Sea, United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/consultative_process/consultative_process.htm (accessed on May 11, 2009).

58. Report on the Work of the United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea at its 6^th meeting, July 7, 2005, A/60/99, 8, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/414/01/PDF/N0541401.pdf?OpenElement (accessed on October 21, 2009).

59. UN Secretary General Report, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Report of the Secretary-General Addendum A/60/63/Add.1, 15 July 2005, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/425/11/PDF/N0542511.pdf?OpenElement (accessed on October 3, 2009).

60. UN General Assembly Resolution 60/30 (November 29, 2005), Oceans and the Law of the Sea, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/489/34/PDF/N0548934.pdf (accessed on October 3, 2009).

61. UN General Assembly Resolution 61/222 (December 20, 2006), Oceans and the Law of the Sea, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/507/69/PDF/N0650769.pdf (accessed 03 Oct 2009).

62. OSPAR Convention, http://www.ospar.org/html_documents/ospar/html/OSPAR_Convention_e_updated_text_2007.pdf

63. OSPAR Commission, About OSPAR, http://www.ospar.org/content/content.asp?menu=00010100000000_000000_000000. A map of the Northeast Atlantic OSPAR Maritime Area is available at http://www.ospar.org/content/regions.asp?menu=00020200000000_000000_000000

64. Ibid.

65. Ibid., The 15 Governments are Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.

66. OSPAR Commission, Draft Summary Record, OSPAR 2004 (OSPAR 04/23/1-E) Annex 20, 2004/05 Product 17.

67. See OSPAR Commission, 2003: OSPAR Commission, Case Reports for the Initial List of Threatened and/or Declining Species and Habitats in the OSPAR Maritime Area, 91.

68. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as Modified by the Protocol of 1978. The full text of the Convention is available from the Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC), US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Available at http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/texts/pollution.from.ships.1973.html (accessed on October 3, 2009).

69. Wikipedia. “MARPOL.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARPOL (accessed June 5, 2009).

70. MARPOL 73/78, Supra note [65].

71. MARPOL 73/78, Article 3(3), “The Present Convention shall not apply to any warship, naval auxiliary or other ship owned or operated by a state and used, for the time being only on government non-commercial service, However, each party shall ensure by the adoption of appropriate measures not impairing the operations or operational capabilities of such ships owned or operated by it, that such ships act in a manner consistent, so far as is reasonable and practicable, with the present Convention”, Ibid.

72. See note [70].

73. International Maritime Organization, Introduction to the IMO. http://www.imo.org (accessed on June 5, 2009).

74. MARPOL 73/78 Article 2(2) and 2(3).

75. McCarthy, Supra note [49], p. 279; Dotinga and Elferink, Supra note [1], p. 164.

76. MMFACA Environmental Caucus Report, C-21 citing IMO, Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Areas, Res. A. 927(22), Para. 2.2 and Res. A. 720(17), Annex, Para. 1.2.2 and 1.2.11.

77. IMO, Marine Environmental Protection Committee, Work Programme of the Committee and Subsidiary Bodies (October 8, 2008), http://www.sjofartsverket.se/pages/14228/58WP3.pdf (accessed on October 21, 2009).

78. Ibid.

79. International Maritime Organization, Marine Environment, Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), 59^th Session, July 13-17, 2009, http://www.imo.org (accessed on June 15, 2009).

80. Convention on Migratory Species, http://www.cms.int (accessed on June 15, 2009), A Copy of the CMS text is available at http://www.cms.int/documents/index.htm

81. For a complete list of CMS Parties see http://www.cms.int/about/part_lst.htm

82. Adverse Anthropogenic Marine/Ocean Noise Impacts on Cetaceans and Other Biota, http://www.cms.int/bodies/COP/cop9/documents/meeting_docs/Res%20and%20Rec/Post_session_Pre_final/Res_9_19_ocean_noise_E.pdf (accessed on June 15, 2009).

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. Ibid.

86. International Convention of the Regulation Whaling (ICRW), A copy of the Convention is available at http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm; Wikipedia. “International Convention of the Regulation Whaling.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Convention_for_the_Regulation_of_Whaling; A List of the ICRW Member Parties is available at http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/members.htm (accessed on June 23, 2009).

87. Ibid.

88. Ibid.

89. International Whaling Commission Chair's Report of the 56^th Annual Meeting, July 1922, 2004, 55, http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/meetings/ChairReportIWC56final.pdf (accessed on June 23, 2009).

90. Ibid., 8 and 55.

91. ACCOBAMS. “About ACCOBAMS.” http://www.accobams.org/2006.php/pages/show/9 (accessed on June 23, 2009). For the full text of ACCOBAMS visit http:// www.accobams.org/files/142, There are currently 28 Contracting Party Governments to the Agreement; A complete list of Contracting Parties and Signatories is available at http://www.accobams.org/2006.php/pages/popup/77; The ACCOBAMS was established under the auspices of United Nations Environmental Programme 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS or Bonn Convention); for more information on the CMS, see the UNEP CMS website at http://www.cms.int

92. Report of the Third Meeting of the Contracting Parties to ACCOBAMS, 172-173. http://www.accobams.org/2006.php/parties/documents/5 (accessed on June 23, 2009).

93. Resolution 3.10 Guidelines to Address the Impact of Anthropogenic Noise on Marine Mammals in the ACCOBAMS Area, http://www.accobams.org/2006.php/parties/documents/5 (accessed on June 23, 2009).

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid.

99. Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas, http://www.service-board.de/ascobans_neu/files/agreement1992.pdf; ASCOBANS, FAQ. http://www.ascobans.org/index0301.html (accessed on June 23, 2009).

100. The 10 parties to ASCOBANS areBelgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Lithuania, The Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom; The Non-party Range states are Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Norway, Portugal, Russia and Spain; ASCOBANS “About ASCOBANS.” http://www.ascobans.org/index0101.html (accessed on June 25, 2009); A map of the parties and agreement area is available at http://www.serviceboard.de/ascobans_neu/bilder/area_map.gif

101. ASCOBAMS, Annexure, Conservation and Management Plan, 6.

102. Resolution No. 4 of the 5^th Meeting of the Parties to ASCOBANS, December 12, 2006, Adverse Effects of Sound, Vessels and Other Forms of Disturbance on Small Cetaceans, http://www.service-board.de/ascobans_neu/files/mop5-final-4.pdf

103. Ibid.

104. Ibid.

105. Ibid.

106. European Cetacean Society. http://www.europeancetaceansociety.eu (accessed on June 25, 2009).

107. European Cetacean Society. “Resolution on the Need to Regulate Sonar Mitigation.” http://www.europeancetaceansociety.eu/ecs-news.php (accessed on October 3, 2009).

108. Ibid.

109. European Parliament. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/public/staticDisplay.do;jsessionid=7BDA187E26E6EA1DEB0255916970DCA4.node2?id=146 (accessed on October 21, 2009).

110. Wikipedia. “European Parliament.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament (accessed on June 25, 2009).

111. European Parliament Resolution on the Environmental Effects of High-intensity Active Naval Sonars. http://www.awionline.org/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/10128 (accessed on October 3, 2009).

112. European Parliament Resolution on the Environmental Effects of High-Intensity Active Naval Sonars. http://www.awionline.org/oceans/Noise/IONC/Docs/EU_Res-2004.pdf (accessed on June 25, 2009); The European Commission is the Executive Branch of the EU; See European Commission website at http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm

113. Ibid.

114. Ibid.

115. Wikipedia. “International Union for Conservation of Nature.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature (accessed on June 26, 2009).

116. IUCN. “About IUCN.” htttp://www.iucn.org/about/ (accessed on June 26, 2009); IUCN. “What We Do.” http://www.iucn.org/what/ (accessed on June 26, 2009).

117. MMM FACA Environmental Caucus Report, C-21 citing IUCN, Undersea Noise Pollution, World Conservation Congress Res. 3-053 (2004).

118. Ibid.

119. Resolution 3.068, Undersea Noise Pollution, IUCN World Conservation Congress, Bangkok, Thailand, November, 17-25 2004, “Resolutions and Recommendations”, available at http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/wcc_res_rec_eng.pdf (accessed on June 26, 2009).