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ABSTRACT
Transnational judicial dialogue, initially treated by Anne-Marie Slaughter as a separate theoretical issue, refers to an inter-state engagement that is of growing importance in globalization. Given that China’s longstanding judicial philosophy is highly attentive to the national development strategy, the judiciary immediately devoted itself to enhancing the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) – China’s new strategy for engaging with globalization and pursuing its ambition of rising as a leading world power. Transnational judicial dialogue may help improve understanding of the delivery of justice in China and exhibit Chinese ‘judicial wisdom’ to other BRI countries, thereby increasing confidence in the Chinese judiciary while enhancing judicial cooperation between China and other BRI countries. Dialogue may also help other BRI countries better understand China’s national development and foreign policies. Chinese transnational judicial dialogue has its own characteristics, especially in relation to face-to-face programme ‘training’ or yanxiu, provided for foreign judges. This article surveys the diversity and significance of transnational judicial dialogue in a globalized context. In particular, it demonstrates that an assertedly non-liberal state can also become a major player in transnational judicial dialogue and benefit other states, at least in some aspects. Chinese transnational judicial dialogue sheds light on the strengths and weaknesses of Slaughter’s theory.
Notes
1 Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘A Typology of Transjudicial Communication’ [1994] 29 U Rich L Rev 99 (hereinafter ‘Slaughter (1994)’).
2 Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘International Law in a World of Liberal States’ [1995] 6 Eur J Int’l L 503 (hereinafter ‘Slaughter (1995)’); Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘Liberal International Relations Theory and International Economic Law’ [1995] 10 Am U J Int’l L & Pol’y 717; Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘A Liberal Theory of International Law’ [2000] 94 Am Soc’y Int’l L Proc 240.
3 Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton University Press, 2004, hereinafter ‘Slaughter (2004)’) 12–22 and Chapter 2.
4 See, C Boyden Gray, ‘Upgrading Existing Regulatory Mechanisms for Transatlantic Regulatory Cooperation’ [2015] 78 Law & Contemp Probs 31; Mariana Mota Prado, ‘Regulatory Cooperation in Latin America: The Case of Mercosur’ [2015] 78 Law & Contemp Probs 205; George A Bermann, ‘Regulatory Cooperation between the European Commission and U.S. Administrative Agencies’ [1995–1996] 9 Admin L J Am U 933; Debra P Steger, ‘Institutions for Regulatory Cooperation in New Generation Economic and Trade Agreements’ [2012] 39 Legal Issues of Econ Integration 109; Usman Ahmed, ‘The Importance of Cross-Border Regulatory Cooperation in an Era of Digital Trade’ [2019] 18 World Trade Rev S 99; Kal Raustiala, ‘Domestic Institutions and International Regulatory Cooperation: Comparative Responses to the Convention on Biological Diversity’ [1996–1997] 49 World Pol 482; Reinhard Quick, ‘Regulatory Cooperation – A Subject of Bilateral Trade Negotiations or Even for the WTO’ [2008] 42 J World Trade 391; Bernard Joekman, ‘Fostering Transatlantic Regulatory Cooperation and Gradual Multilateralization’ [2015] 18 J Int’l Econ L 609; Alberto Alemanno, ‘The Regulatory Cooperation Chapter of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership: Institutional Structures and Democratic Consequences’ [2015] 18 J Int’l Econ L 625; Reeve T Bull, Neysun A Mahboubi, Richard B Stewart and Jonathan B Wiener, ‘New Approaches to International Regulatory Cooperation: The Challenge of TTIP, TPP, and Mega-Regional Trade Agreements’ [2015] 78 Law & Contemp Probs 1.
5 Slaughter explicitly used ‘Legislators: Lagging Behind’ as a chapter title. See Slaughter (2004), 104.
6 See mainly Melissa A Waters, ‘Mediating Norms and Identity: The Role of Transnational Judicial Dialogue in Creating and Enforcing International Law’ [2005] 93 Geo L J 487; Charles H Jr Koch, ‘Judicial Dialogue for Legal Multiculturalism’ 25 [2004] Mich J Int’l L 879; Philip M Moremen, ‘National Court Decisions as State Practice: A Transnational Judicial Dialogue?’ [2006] 32 N C J Int’l L & Com Reg 259; Michael Kirby, ‘Transnational Judicial Dialogue, Internationalization of Law and Australian Judges’ [2008] 9 Melb J Int’l L 171; Leila Sadat, ‘Transnational Judicial Dialogue and the Rwandan Genocide: Aspects of Antagonism and Complementary’ [2009] 40 Stud Transnat’l Legal Pol’y 123; Helene Lambert, ‘Transnational Judicial Dialogue, Harmonization and the Common European Asylum System’ [2009] 58 Int’l & Comp L Q 519; Eyal Benvenisti and George W Downs, Between Fragmentation and Democracy: The Role of National and International Courts (Cambridge University Press, 2017) Chapters 5 and 6.
7 ‘President Xi Jinping Delivers Important Speech and Proposes to Build a Silk Road Economic Belt with Central Asian Countries’ <www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/xjpfwzysiesgjtfhshzzfh_665686/t1076334.shtml>; ‘Xi in Call for Building of New Maritime Silk Road’ <http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-10/04/content_17008940.htm> accessed 10 January 2020. As for the BRI, see generally Julien Chaisse and Jedrzej Górki (eds), The Belt and Road Initiative: Law, Economics, and Politics (Brill/Nijhoff, 2018); Wenhua Shan, Kimmo Nuotio and Kangle Zhang (eds), Normative Readings of the Belt and Road Initiative: Road to New Paradigm (Springer, 2018).
8 Congyan Cai, ‘International Law in Chinese Courts during the Rise of China’ [2016] 112 Am J Int’l L 269.
9 Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 66.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid, 78.
12 Ibid, 67. See also ibid, 86–91.
13 Ibid, 86.
14 Ibid, 99.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid, 129–32.
17 Ibid, 132.
18 Ibid, 114–22, 132–35.
19 Anne-Marie Slaughter (1995), 504–05.
20 Anne-Marie Slaughter (1995), 530, and 533–34.
21 Anne-Marie Slaughter (1994), 122; Anne-Marie Slaughter (1994), 69, 93.
22 Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 97, 99.
23 Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 198–203.
24 Anne-Marie Slaughter (1994), 124; Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 75–78.
25 Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 73–74.
26 Anne-Marie Slaughter (1994), 102.
27 An exception is that an Australian judge briefed transnational judicial dialogue of Australian judges. Michael Kirby, ‘Transnational Judicial Dialogue, Internationalization of Law and Australian Judges’ [2008] 9 Melb J Int’l L 171.
28 See supra note 4.
29 Waters (n 6).
30 Moremen (n 6).
31 Benvenisti and Downs (n 6).
32 Anne-Marie Slaughter (2004), 70, 82–84.
33 Chief justices from Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda established the Judicial Group on Strengthening Judicial Integrity, proposing Bangalore Principle of Judicial Conduct in 2001. ‘The Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct 2002’ <http://constitutionnet.org/vl/item/bangalore-principles-judicial-conduct-2002> accessed 10 January 2020.
34 As of October 2019, China has signed the BRI cooperation instruments with 137 states. See ‘The list of states signing BRI cooperation instruments with China’ (已同中国签订 ‘一带一路’ 合作文件的国家一览) <www.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/gbjg/gbgk/77073.htm> accessed 10 January 2020.
35 PRC Constitution 1982, amended in 2004 (中华人民共和国宪法) , Article 126.
36 Law of Organization of Courts of PRC 1979, amended in 2006, 2018 (中华人民共和国人民法院组织法) , Art 4 (2006), Arts 4, 5 (2018); Judge Law of PRC 1995, amended in 2001 (中华人民共和国法官法) , Art 8(2).
37 PRC Constitution 2004 (中华人民共和国宪法) , Arts 3, 92, 96, 111, 128, 133. See also Law of Organization of Courts of PRC 1979, amended in 2006 (中华人民共和国人民法院组织法) , Art 16.
38 Law of Organization of Courts of PRC 1979, as amended in 2006 (中华人民共和国人民法院组织法) , Art 3(1).
39 PRC Constitution 2004 (中华人民共和国宪法) , Preamble.
40 Law of Organization of Courts of PRC 1979, as amended in 2018 (中华人民共和国人民法院组织法) , Art 2(2).
41 Zhu Suli, ‘Political Parties in China’s Judiciary’ [2006–2007] 17 Duke J Comp & Int’l L 533; Zhu Suli, ‘The Party and the Courts’ in Randall Peerenboom (ed), Judicial Independence in China: Lessons for Global Rule of Law Promotion (Cambridge University Press, 2009) Chapter 4.
42 Xin He, ‘The Party’s Leadership as A Living Constitution in China’ [2012] 42 Hong Kong L J 73.
43 Shucheng Wang, ‘Emergence of a Dual Constitution in Transitional China’ [2015] 45 Hong Kong L J 819.
44 See, e.g. Yu Zhong, ‘Political Function Assumed by China’s Supreme People’s Court (SPC): Based upon the Annual “Working Reports” of the SPC’ [2006] 6 Tsinghua Law Journal 35 (喻中, ‘论中国最高人民法院实际承担的政治功能 – 以最高人民法院历年 “工作报告” 为素材’, 《清华法学》 2006 年第 6 期, 第 35 页) ; Shi Fei, ‘The Evolution of the Political Mandate of the Supreme People’s Court (SPC): Focusing on the Working Reports of the SPC from 1950–2007’ [2008] 1 Opening Times 123 (时飞, ‘最高人民法院政治任务的变化 – 以1950–2007年最高人民法院工作报告为中心’, 《开放时代》 2008 年第 1 期, 第 123 页) ; Zheng Zhihang, ‘The Evolution of Political Discourse of the Supreme People’s Court (SPC) and the Strategy of Mutual Adjustment: Focusing on the Analysis of Discourse in Working Reports of the SPC from 1980–2010’ [2013] 5 Gansu Social Science 205 (郑智航, ‘最高人民法院政治话语的变迁及双向调适策略 – 以1980–2010年《最高人民法院工作报告》的话语分析为主线’, 《甘肃社会科学》 2013 年第 5 期, 第 205 页) .
45 China’s Supreme People’s Court (SPC), Opinions on the Provision of Judicial Service and Guarantees to ‘One Belt One Road’ Initiative (16 June 2015) (‘The BRI Judicial Opinion (2015)’)(最高人民法院, 关于人民法院为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的若干意见, 法发 [2015] 9号) <www.court.gov.cn/fabu-xiangqing-14900.html> accessed 10 January 2020.
46 National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road (国家发展改革委, 外交部, 商务部, 《推动共建丝绸之路经济带和 21 世纪海上丝绸之路的愿景与行动》) <www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-03/28/content_2839723.htm> accessed 10 January 2020.
47 SPC, the Opinions on the Further Provision of Judicial Service and Guarantees to ‘One Belt One Road’ Initiative (9 December 2019) (‘The BRI Judicial Opinion (2019)’) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院进一步为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的意见, 法发 [2019] 29 号) <www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-212931.html> accessed 10 January 2020.
48 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2015) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的若干意见, 法发 [2015] 9 号) , para 1.
49 ‘Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reforms’ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Comprehensively_Deepening_Reforms_Commission> accessed 10 January 2020.
50 General Office of the CCP Central Committee and General Office of the State Council Issued the Opinions concerning the Establishment of International Commercial Dispute Settlement Mechanisms and Institutions for the BRI Construction (中共中央办公厅、 国务院办公厅印发《关于建立 ‘一带一路’ 国际商事争端解决机制和机构的意见》) <www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2018-06/27/c_1123046194.htm> accessed 10 January 2020.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid.
53 The SPC, Provisions of the Supreme People’s Court on Several Issues Regarding the Establishment of the International Commercial Court, 27 June 2018 (hereinafter ‘the SPC Provisions of the CICC (2018)’) (最高人民法院关于设立国际商事法庭若干问题的规定, 法释 [2018] 11 号) <http://cicc.court.gov.cn/html/1/219/208/210/817.html> accessed January 10 2020. As to the CICC, see generally Zhengxin Huo and Man Yip, ‘Comparing the International Commercial Courts of China with Singapore International Commercial Court’ [2019] 68 ICLQ 903; Sheng Zhang, ‘China’s International Commercial Court: Background, Obstacles and the Road Ahead’ [2020] 11 Journal of International Dispute Settlement 1.
54 The SPC Provisions of the CICC (最高人民法院关于设立国际商事法庭若干问题的规定, 法释 [2018] 11 号), Preamble.
55 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2019) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院进一步为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的意见, 法发 [2019] 29 号) , para 26.
56 ‘The SPC signed Memorandums of Understanding on Judicial Cooperation’ (中国最高人民法院签署司法交流合作谅解备忘录) <www.sohu.com/a/147261675_117927> accessed 10 January 2020.
57 He Qisheng, ‘The Idea of Justice in a Great Power and the Development of International Civil Procedure in China’ [2017] 5 Social Science in China 123 (何其生, ‘大国司法理念与中国国际民事诉讼制度的发展’, 《中国社会科学》 2017 年第 5 期, 第 123 页).
58 ‘2005 Choice of Court Convention to enter into force on 1 October 2015 following the approval by the European Union’ <www.hcch.net/en/news-archive/details/?varevent=412> accessed 10 January 2020.
59 See Yongping Xiao, ‘The Ratification of the Convention on Choice of Court Agreements and China’s Countermeasures’ [2017] 5 Wuhan University International Law Review 1 (肖永平, ‘批准《选择法院协议公约》的利弊分析及我国的对策’, 《武大国际法评论》 2017 年第 1 期, 第 8 页); Renshan Liu, ‘China’s Ratification of the Convention on Choice of Court Agreements: Problems and Solutions’ [2018] 4 Chinese Journal of Law 188 (刘仁山, ‘我国批准《选择法院协议公约》的问题与对策’, 《法学研究》 2018 年第 4 期, 第 188 页). However, most of, if not all, Chinese lawyers support China should ratify that Convention as soon as possible, suggesting that that Convention can help modernize the administration of justice in China and facilitate the BRI. Yongping Xiao, ibid, 2–4; Renshan Liu, ibid, 201.
60 Randall Peerenboom, China’s Long March Toward Rule of Law (Cambridge University Press, 2002) 280.
61 Some WTO members stated that ‘China should designate independent tribunals, contact points, and procedures for the prompt review of all administrative actions relating to the implementation of laws, regulations, judicial decisions and administrative rulings of general application referred to in Article X:1 of the GATT 1994, … These members stated that such tribunals should be independent of the agencies entrusted with administrative enforcement of the matter and should not have any substantial interest in the outcome of the matter’. Report of the Working Panel of the Accession of China, WT/ACC/CHN/49, 1 October 2001, para 76.
62 Accession of the People’s Republic of China, Decision of 10 November 2001, WT/L/432, 23 November 2001, 4. See also Report of the Working Panel of the Accession of China, para 78.
63 Peerenboom (n 60) 290.
64 Ibid, 292–93.
65 See, e.g. SPC, Notice of the Supreme People’s Court on Several Issues Concerning the Trial and Enforcement of Foreign-Related Civil and Commercial Cases, 17 April 2000 (最高人民法院, 关于审理和执行涉外民商事案件应当注意的几个问题的通知, 法 [2000] 51 号) <www.tpan.cn/html/5196.htm> accessed 10 January 2020.
66 See Section IV.A.
67 Congyan Cai, The Rise of China and International Law (Oxford University Press, 2019) Chapter 4.
68 See, e.g. Barry Buzan, ‘China in International Society: Is “Peaceful Rise” Possible?’ [2010] 3 Chinese Journal of International Politics 1; G John Ikenberry, ‘The Rise of China and the Future of the West’ [2008] 87 Foreign Aff 23.
69 ‘Yang Jiechi on the Belt and Road Initiative and Preparations for the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation’ <www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/zyjh_665391/t1650535.shtml> accessed 10 January 2020.
70 ‘President Xi Urges New Media Outlet to “Tell China Stories Well”’ <www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-12/31/content_27832508.htm> accessed 10 January 2020.
71 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2015) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的若干意见, 法发 [2015] 9 号) , para 1.
72 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2015) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的若干意见, 法发 [2015] 9 号) , para 12.
73 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2019) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院进一步为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的意见, 法发 [2019] 29 号) , para 23.
74 See Congyan Cai, ‘International Law in Chinese Courts during the Rise of China’ [2016] 110 Am J Int’l L 269.
75 See generally Turan Kayaoglu, Legal Imperialism: Sovereignty and Extraterritoriality in Japan, the Ottoman Empire, and China (Cambridge University Press, 2010); Teemu Ruskola, Legal Orientalism: China, the United States and Modern Law (Harvard University Press, 2013).
76 ‘The Supreme People’s Court officially starts the uniform platform of the identification of foreign law today’ (最高人民法院域外法查明统一平台今天正式启动) <https://new.qq.com/omn/20191129/20191129A0MFNY00.html> accessed 20 January 2010.
77 ‘A decision by Guangzhou Maritime Court is invoked by the UK court’ (广州海事法院一裁定被英国法院引用) <www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2012/04/id/478000.shtml> accessed 10 January 2020.
78 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2019) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院进一步为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的意见, 法发 [2019] 29 号) , para 2.
79 See in detail in Section IV.A.
80 See in detail in Section IV.
81 ‘Promote judicial cooperation and build a bridge of friendship – the 2019 Seminar for Judges from Latin America was successfully held at National Judges College’ (促进司法合作共建友谊桥梁 2019年拉美国家法官研修班在国家法官学院成功举办) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8913> accessed 10 January 2020.
82 ‘National Judges College Holds the First Seminar for Judges from Turkey, Opening New Chapter of Judicial Training of Regional Great Power’ (国家法官学院举办首届土耳其法官研修班 开启地区性大国司法培训新篇章) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=6834> accessed 15 January 2020.
83 ‘National Judges College for the First Time Holds Video Training and Seminar, 360 judges from China and Venezuela Conduct Face-to-Face Exchanges, and Dean Wenjun Huang and President Gustavo Give Opening Speeches’ (国家法官学院首次通过跨洋视频进行国际培训研讨中国与委内瑞拉360余名法官面对面现场交流 黄文俊院长和古斯塔夫院长致辞) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=6445>; ‘Transocean video conference innovates a new model of international judicial exchange-Nearly 800 judges from China and Venezuela interacted face-to-face’ (跨洋视频创新国际司法交流新模式 中委两国近800名法官面对面现场交流互动) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8644> accessed 10 January 2020.
84 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2015) (最高人民法院, 关于人民法院为 ‘一带一路’ 建设提供司法服务和保障的若干意见, 法发[2015]9号) , para 12.
85 The Nanning Declaration at the 2nd China-ASEAN Justice Forum <http://cicc.court.gov.cn/html/1/219/208/209/800.html> accessed 10 January 2020.
86 Nanning Declaration, paras 2, 5, 7 and 8.
87 See, e.g. Lidong Cai, ‘The Construction of Smart Courts: Implementing Principles and Institutional Support’ [2017] 2 Chinese Review of the Administration of Justice 19 (蔡立东, ‘智慧法院建设: 实施原则与制度支撑’, 《中国应用法学》 2017 年第 2 期, 第 19 页); Changming Hu, ‘Achievement and Prospect of the Construction of Smart Courts in China: In the Perspective of Information Construction of Trial Management’ [2018] 2 Chinese Review of the Administration of Justice 107 (胡昌明, ‘中国智慧法院建设的成就与展望 – 以审判管理的信息化建设为视角’, 《中国应用法学》 2018 年第 2期, 第 107 页).
88 The Supreme People’s Court (ed), Major Events in the Past Thirty Years of the Reform and Opening Up of the People’s Courts (1978–2008) (People’s Court Press, 2008) 19 (最高人民法院, 《人民法院改革开放三十年大事记 (1978–2008) 》, 人民法院出版社 2008 年版, 第 19 页).
89 Rong Liu, ‘The First Opening Ceremony of China Senior Judges Training Centre’ [1988] 10 People’s Judicature 11 (刘嵘, ‘中国高级法官培训中心举行首届开学典礼’, 《人民司法》 1988 年第 10期, 第 11 页).
90 ‘Introduction of the National Judges College’ (国家法官学院简介) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/index/info.html> accessed 10 January 2020.
91 Xin Yi, ‘The Review and Outlook – An Interview with Liang Baojian, the Director of the Executive Office of China Senior Judges Training Centre’ [1993] 5 Journal of Law Application 35 (易新, ‘回顾与展望 – 访中国高级法官培训中心办公室主任梁宝俭’, 《法律适用》 1993 年第 5 期, 第 35 页).
92 The Supreme People’s Court (ed), Major Events in the Past Thirty Years of the Reform and Opening Up of the People’s Courts (1978–2008) (People’s Court Press, 2008) 48 (最高人民法院, 《人民法院改革开放三十年大事记 (1978–2008)》, 人民法院出版社 2008 年版, 第 48 页).
93 ‘Judicial Dialogue’ <www.gbcc.org.uk/dialogues/judicial-dialogues> accessed 10 January 2020.
94 The Supreme People’s Court (ed), Major Events in the Past Thirty Years of the Reform and Opening Up of the People’s Courts (1978–2008) (People’s Court Press, 2008) 268 (最高人民法院, 《人民法院改革开放三十年大事记 (1978–2008)》, 人民法院出版社 2008 年版, 第 268 页).
95 Ibid, 119.
96 The BRI Judicial Opinion (2019), para 39.
97 ‘The NJC holds the tenth “yanxiu” program for Judges from Mongolia’ (聚合中蒙司法合作力量 共谱两国友谊新篇章 国家法官学院举办第十期蒙古国法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8928> accessed 10 January 2020.
98 Taking the 2019 3rd Seminar for Judges of Nepal for example, the opening ceremony and lectures are held in Hainan branch of NJC (国家法官学院成功举办第三期尼泊尔法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8822> accessed 20 January 2020.
99 For instance, the 2019 2nd Seminar for Judges of Bolivia and the 2019 2nd Seminar for Judges of Latin America both have this lecture, see ‘Promote judicial cooperation and build a bridge of friendship – the 2019 Seminar for Judges from Latin America was successfully held at National Judges College’ (促进司法合作共建友谊桥梁 2019 年拉美国家法官研修班在国家法官学院成功举办) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8913> accessed 10 January 2020.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
102 ‘Latin American judges and Bolivian judges visited Beijing DHH Law Firm’ (国家法官学院拉美国家法官研修班和玻利维亚法官研修班参访北京德和衡律师事务所) <www.deheheng.com/Archives/IndexArchives/index/a_id/4740.html>; ‘National Judges College successfully held the first Seminar for Judges from Pakistan’ (国家法官学院成功举办首期巴基斯坦法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8851> accessed 20 January 2020.
103 See, e.g. ‘Judges from Latin America and Bolivia visit Beijing Internet Court’ <www.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/cac/zw/1568857953284.html%20> accessed 10 January 2020.
104 See generally Li Xiaohui, ‘Research on the Building of China’s Smart Court in the Internet Era’ [2020] 8 China Legal Science 30.
105 Official website of AIBO, MOFCOM (商务部国际商务官员研修学院) <www.china-aibo.cn/> accessed 20 January 2020.
106 ‘National Judges College successfully held the first Seminar for Judges from Pakistan’ (国家法官学院成功举办首期巴基斯坦法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8851>; ‘National Judges College successfully held the third Seminar for Judges from Nepal’ (国家法官学院成功举办第三期尼泊尔法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8822> accessed 20 January 2020.
107 ‘The 2017 Seminar for Judges from Africa successfully concluded’ (2017年非洲国家法官研修班顺利结业) <www.china-aibo.cn/article/content/view?id%6069> accessed 20 January 2020.
108 ‘Pool the Strength of China-Mongolia Judicial Cooperation to Usher a New Chapter of China-Mongolia Friendship- National Judges College Held the 10th Seminar for Judges from Mongolia’ (聚合中蒙司法合作力量 共谱两国友谊新篇章 国家法官学院举办第十期蒙古国法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8928> accessed 10 January 2020.
109 ‘Promote judicial cooperation and build a bridge of friendship – the 2019 Seminar for Judges from Latin America was successfully held at National Judges College’ (促进司法合作共建友谊桥梁 2019 年拉美国家法官研修班在国家法官学院成功举办) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8913> accessed 20 January 2020.
110 The NJC successfully holds “yanxiu” for judges and prosecutors from the South-eastern countries’ (国家法官学院成功举办东南亚南亚法官检察官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8970%20%3e> accessed 20 January 2020.
111 ‘Implement the BRI and build a bridge of cooperation and exchange – National Judges College successfully held the Third Seminar for Judges from Central Asia’ (践行 ‘一带一路’ 战略 共架合作交流之桥 国家法官学院成功举办第三期中亚国家法官研修班) <http://njc.chinacourt.org/index/news/cinfo?itemid=8876> accessed 10 January 2020.
112 Ibid.