Raw materials diplomacy and extractives governance: The influence of the EU on the African extractive industry space

ABSTRACT

The European Union has for a decade wielded raw materials diplomacy to secure access to resources from external sources, and increasingly is emerging as a global governor of extractives in its own right. This dynamic occurs in the context of an international extractives sector with fragmented and varied international organisations (IOs) and initiatives playing unique roles in constructing and sustaining the governance of extractive resources. The EU, founded on the back of the European Coal and Steel Community, in 2008 launched the integrated Raw Materials Initiative, under which it has sought a sustainable supply of raw materials from global markets. Drawing on the case of African extractives governance, which is characterised by the advent of the African Mining Vision, this article applies to the EU, as a referent IO, the concept of global extractives governors, defined as authorities who exercise power across borders by influencing extractive industries and minerals policy.

KEYWORDS:

• Africa
• African mining vision
• economic resource diplomacy
• European Union
• extractives governance
• raw materials Initiative

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor

Michael Amoah Awuah is a Doctoral Candidate and Research Fellow at the Centre for European Integration Studies, University of Bonn. His research interests are at the intersection of Energy and Extractives, Political Economy, Comparative Regionalism, Comparative Border Studies, EU–Africa Relations and Policy Studies. He has a Masters in European Studies (MES): Governance and Regulation from the University of Bonn.

ORCID

Michael Amoah Awuah http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6570-8593

Notes

1. Tiess G, ‘Minerals Policy in Europe: Some Recent Developments’, Resources Policy, 35.3, 2010, pp. 190–98 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2010.05.005>.

2. Goldthau A & NSitter, ‘A Liberal Actor in a Realist World? The Commission and the External Dimension of the Single Market for Energy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 21.10, 2014, pp. 1452–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2014.912251>.

3. Anciaux P, ‘The Raw Materials Initiative : Meeting Our Critical Needs For Growth And Jobs In Europe’, in International Nickel Study Group. Lisbon: European Commission, 2009, p. 14 <http://www.insg.org/presents/Mr_Anciaux_Apr09.pdf> [accessed 15 September 2018]; Anciaux P, ‘EU RAW MATERIALS INITIATIVE’, in Extractive Industries Week. Washington: European Commission, 2009, p. 7 <https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTOGMC/Resources/336929-1237387264558/5930373-1237387327980/Paul_Anciaux_EITI++.pdf> [accessed 1 January 2018].

4. European Commission, ‘Raw Materials Diplomacy’, COM, 2018 <https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/raw-materials/specific-interest/international-aspects_en> [accessed 17 July 2018].

5. Goldthau A & NSitter, ‘Soft Power with a Hard Edge: EU Policy Tools and Energy Security’, Review of International Political Economy, 2290 January, 2015, pp. 1–25 <https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2015.1008547>.

6. Ighobor K, ‘China in the Heart of Africa’, African Renewal Online, 2013, 6 <http://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/january-2013/china-heart-africa>.

7. Goldthau & Sitter, ‘A Liberal Actor in a Realist World? The Commission and the External Dimension of the Single Market for Energy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 21 October, 2014, pp. 1452–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2014.912251>; Jordana J & D Levi-Faur, The Politics of Regulation: Institutions and Regulatory Reforms for the Age of Governance, Jordana J & D Levi-Faur (eds), 1st edn. Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2004; Martin Lodge, ‘Regulation, the Regulatory State and European Politics’, 2008 <https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380701835074>; Giandomenico Majone, ‘The Rise of the Regulatory State in Europe’, West European Politics, 17.3, 1994, pp. 77–101 <https://doi.org/10.1080/01402389408425031>; Giandomenico Majone, Regulating Europe, Majone G (ed), 1st edn. New York: Routledge, 1996, liii <https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004>.

8. Milward AS, The European Rescue of the Nation-State, Milward AS, G Brennan & F Romero (eds), 2nd edn. London and New York: Routledge, 2000; Ruggie JG, ‘International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order’, International Organization, 36.2, 1982, pp. 379–415 <http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html>.

9. McGowan F & HWallace, ‘Towards a European Regulatory State’, Journal of European Public Policy, 3.4, 1996, pp. 560–76 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501769608407053>.

10. Goldthau & Sitter, ‘A Liberal Actor in a Realist World? The Commission and the External Dimension of the Single Market for Energy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 21 October, 2014, pp. 1452–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2014.912251>.

11. Ibid.

12. Hyde-Price A, ‘‘Normative’ Power Europe: A Realist Critique’, Journal of European Public Policy, 13.2, 2006, pp. 217–34 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760500451634>; Manners I, ‘Normative Power Europe Reconsidered: Beyond the Crossroads1’, Journal of European Public Policy, 13.2, 2006, pp. 182–99 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760500451600>; Helene Sjursen, ‘What Kind of Power?’, Journal of European Public Policy, 13.2, 2006, pp. 169–81 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760500451584>; Sjursen H, ‘The EU as a ’normative; Power: How Can This Be?’, Journal of European Public Policy, 13.2, 2006, pp. 235–51 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760500451667>; Hill C, The Actors in Europe’s Foreign Policy, Hill C (ed), 1st edn. London and New York: Routledge, 1996; Eliassen K, Foreign and Security Policy in the European Union, Eliassen K (ed), 1st edn. London: SAGE Publications, 1998.

13. Manners I, ‘Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 40.2, 2002, pp. 235–58 <https://rucforsk.ruc.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/40065517/Ian_Manners_Normative_Power_Europe_JCMS_40_2_2002.pdf> [accessed 16 September 2018]; Manners, ‘Normative Power Europe Reconsidered: Beyond the Crossroads1’; Wagnsson C & M Hellman, ‘Normative Power Europe Caving In? EU under Pressure of Russian Information Warfare’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 56.5, 2018, pp. 1161–77 <https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12726>; Whitman RG, Normative Power Europe: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, 2011 <https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2F9780230305601.pdf>; Sjursen, ‘The EU as a ’normative; Power: How Can This Be?’

14. Goldthau & Sitter, ‘A Liberal Actor in a Realist World? The Commission and the External Dimension of the Single Market for Energy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 21 October, 2014, pp. 1452–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2014.912251>; Goldthau A, SS Andersen & N Sitter, ‘The EU Regulatory State, Commission Leadership and External Energy Governance’, in EU Leadership in Energy and Environmental Governance: Global and Local Challenges and Responses, Godzimirski JM (ed), 1st edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, pp. 129–52 <https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137502766>; Goldthau & Sitter, ‘Soft Power with a Hard Edge: EU Policy Tools and Energy Security’.

15. Tukker A et al., The Global Resource Footprint of Nations : Carbon, Water, Land and Materials Embodied in Trade and Final Consumption Calculated with EXIOBASE 2.1., Carbon, Water, Land and Materials Embodied in Trade and Final Consumption Calculated with EXIOBASE. Leiden/Delft/Vienna/Trondheim, 2014, ii.

16. Goldthau A & NSitter, A Liberal Actor in a Realist World : The European Union Regulatory State and the Global Political Economy of Energy, 1st edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

17. Jourdan P & SNaiker, African Evaluation of European Union’s Approach to Raw Materials Engagements: A Review of Responses and Proposals, European Policy Brief, Strategic Dialogue on Sustainable Raw Materials for Europe (STRADE). Freiburg, 2016.

18. Baldwin DA, Economic Statecraft, 1st edn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.

19. Woolcock S, European Union Economic Diplomacy: The Role of the EU in External Economic Relations, 1st edn. Surrey: Ashgate, 2012 <https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2012.737680>.

20. Woolcock, European Union Economic Diplomacy: The Role of the EU in External Economic Relations; Woolcock S, ‘EU Economic Diplomacy: The Factors Shaping Common Action’, The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 6.1, 2011, pp. 83–99 <https://doi.org/10.1163/187119111X576949>.

21. Buzan B, O Wæver & Jde Wilde, Security : A New Framework for Analysis, 1st edn. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998.

22. European Commission (DG Enterprise), The Raw Materials Initiative-Meeting Our Critical Needs for Growth and Jobs in Europe. Brussels, 2008.

23. Anciaux P, ‘Competitiveness of the European Raw Materials Sector’, BHM, Journal of Mining, Metallurgical, Materials, Geotechnical, and Plant Engineering, 150.8, 2005, pp. 275–78.

24. European Commission (DG Enterprise), The Raw Materials Initiative-Meeting Our Critical Needs for Growth and Jobs in Europe. Brussels, 2008.

25. European Commission, ‘Raw Materials Diplomacy-Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs’, Website, accessed 15 September 2018 <http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/raw-materials/specific-interest/international-aspects_en>.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Wagner M & D Huy, Schafft Der Strukturwandel in Der Nachfrage Eine Neue Dimension Für Die Weltrohstoffmärkte, Bundesanstalt Für Wissenschaften Und Rohstoffe? (Does the Structural Change in Demand Accomplish a New Dimension to the World Raw Materials Markets?). Hannover, 2005.

29. Dittrich M, S Giljum, S Lutter & CPolzin, Green Economies around the World? Implications of Resource Use for Development and the Environment. Vienna: SERI, 2012.

30. Nötstaller R & H Wagner, ‘Überlegungen Zum Rohstoffbedarf Und Zur Rohstoffpolitik (Reflections on Resource Consumption and Resource Policy)’, BHM Journal of Mining, Metallurgical, Materials, Geotechnical, and Plant Engineering, 152.12, 2007, pp. 383–90.

31. CNBC Africa, ‘Ghana’s Nana Akufo-Addo Calls for Win-Win Mining Deals at Mining Indaba’, 2019 <https://www.cnbcafrica.com/videos/2019/02/06/ghanas-nana-akufo-addo-calls-for-win-win-mining-deals-at-mining-indaba/> [accessed 7 February 2019].

32. DOE, Critical Materials Strategy. Washington, DC, 2010 <https://www.energy.gov/criticalmaterialsstrategy.pdf>.

33. Mildner S-A & JHowald, ‘United States’, in Fragmentation or Cooperation in Global Resource Governance? A Comparative Analysis of the Raw Materials Strategies of the G20, Hilpert HG & S-A Mildner (eds), 1st edn, Berlin: SWP: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, 2013, pp. 150–57 <www.bgr.bund.de> [accessed 4 February 2018].

34. Ramdoo I, Shopping for Raw Materials: Should Africa Be Worried about EU Raw Materials Initiative? Brussels, 2011 <www.ecdpm.org/dp105> [accessed 2 May 2018].

35. World Trade Organisation, ‘China – Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten and Molybdenum (DS431, 432, 433)’. Geneva: World Trade Organisation, 2015 <www.wto.org>.

36. The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 21 July 2010 passed by the US Congress made a pioneering breakthrough towards ensuring transparency and governance by all companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange. This legislation, which is managed by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), makes it compulsory for resource extractive industries in oil, natural gas and minerals to disclose payments of taxes, royalties, fees (including license fees), production entitlements, bonuses and other material benefits, consistent with the guidelines of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. The law also required manufacturing firms who file with the SEC and use minerals originating in the Democratic Republic of Congo to disclose measures taken to exercise due diligence on the source and chain of custody of the materials and the products manufactured.

37. The Trump Administration based on a resolution passed by the Senate under the Congressional Review Act scrapped Section 1504 of Dodd-Frank in February 2017. This Section required the SEC to adopt a rule on resource extraction payments by April 2011. The SEC rule finally took effect in September 2016, however the first publicised declarations were not due until 2019. Although, the mandate under Section 1504 was still law it expired in February 2018.

38. The EU passed the Accounting and Transparency Directive (2013/34/EU) in 2013 in this same vain.

39. EU Regulation (2017/821) requires importers to follow the five-step framework that the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has laid out in a document called 'Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas'. The regulation was passed on 19 May 2017 and will take effect on 1 January 2021 making provision for the over 600 importers to adapt to the new rules. European Union, ‘Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 Laying down Supply Chain Due Diligence Obligations for Union Importers of Tin, Tantalum and Tungsten, Their Ores, and Gold Originating from Conflict-Affected and High-Ri’, Official Journal of the European Union, 2017 <https://eur-lex.europa.eu>.

40. Mildner S-A & JHowald, ‘United States’, in Fragmentation or Cooperation in Global Resource Governance? A Comparative Analysis of the Raw Materials Strategies of the G20, Hilpert HG & S-A Mildner (eds), 1st edn, Berlin: SWP: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, 2013, pp. 150–57 <www.bgr.bund.de> [accessed 4 February 2018].

41. The Japanese government’s raw materials policy is led by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and implemented by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) and the Japan Bank of International Cooperation (JBIC), with the support of other ministries and government institutions.

42. Ishida K, ‘Japan’s Technology for Metal Recycling’, ADEME-NEDO Workshop 2016 “Circular Economy and Recycling Technology”. Tokyo: New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), 2016; Hirok Hatayama and Kiyotaka Tahara, ‘Criticality Assessment of Metals for Japan’s Resource Strategy’, Materials Transactions, 56.2, 2015, pp. 229–35.

43. US Department of Energy (USD), Critical Materials Strategy. Washington, DC, 2010 <https://www.energy.gov/criticalmaterialsstrategy.pdf>.

44. Ramdoo I, Shopping for Raw Materials: Should Africa Be Worried about EU Raw Materials Initiative? Brussels, 2011 <www.ecdpm.org/dp105> [accessed 2 May 2018], p. 13.

45. Mancheri NA, ‘World Trade in Rare Earths, Chinese Export Restrictions, and Implications’, Resources Policy, 46, December 2015, 2015, pp. 262–71 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.10.009>.

46. China Steel and Iron Industry Development Policy, Order No 25 of the National Reform and Development Commission, July 2005, Article 30.

47. Ibid., p. 266

48. Pigato M & WTang, China and Africa: Expanding Economic Ties in an Evolving Global Context, 2015 <http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/Event/Africa/InvestinginAfricaForum/2015/investing-in-africa-forum-china-and-africa-expanding-economic-ties-in-an-evolving-global-context.pdf> [accessed 1 August 2018].

49. European Commission (DG Enterprise), Tackling the Challenges in Commodity Markets and on Raw Materials. Brussels, 2011.

50. The EU defines ‘criticality’ in terms of Economic Importance and Environment of country risk. They entail importance of a raw material per economic sector & importance of the sector in the EU economy Supply risk, considering: political and economic stability of supply country, production concentration, potential for recycling and substitution, dependence of EU as well as Risk of environmental protection measures by supplier countries.

51. AU Commission and European Commission, THE AFRICA-EU STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP: A Joint Africa-EU Strategy, 2011 <https://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/sites/default/files/documents/eas2007_joint_strategy_en.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2018].

52. European Commission, Commission Contributions to the Implementing of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the Scope of Non-Energy Extractive Industries – Policies Derived from the Raw Materials Initiative and Trade, Environmental, Research and Innovation, Development and F. Brussels, 2017.

53. Levi-Faur D, The Oxford Handbook of Governance, Levi-Faur D (ed), 1st edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012 <https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199560530.001.0001>.

54. Avant DD, M Finnemore & SKSell, Who Governs the Globe?, Avant DD, M Finnemore & SK Sell (eds), Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 2 <https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511845369>.

55. ‘Contentious politics involves interactions in which actors make claims bearing on someone else’s interests in which governments appear either as targets, initiators or third parties. Contentious politics thus brings together … contention, collective action and politics’ Charles Tilly, Contentious Performances, Cambridge

University Press, 2008, p. 5.

56. Avant DD, M Finnemore & SK Sell, Who Governs the Globe?, Avant DD, M Finnemore & SK Sell (eds), Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 22 <https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511845369>.

57. Ibid., p. 18.

58. Ibid., p. 2.

59. Barnett MN & MFinnemore, Rules for the World : International Organizations in Global Politics, 1st edn. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004.

60. Korneev O, ‘International Organizations as Global Migration Governors: The World Bank in Central Asia’, Global Governance, 23.3, 2017, pp. 403–21 <https://doi.org/10.5555/1075-2846.23.3.403>.

61. Börzel TA, ‘Comparative Regionalism A New Research Agenda’, KFG Working Paper Series, 2011, pp. 5–37 <http://www.polsoz.fu-berlin.de/en/v/transformeurope/publications/working_paper/WP_28_Boerzel.pdf>; Börzel TA, ‘Theorizing Regionalism: Cooperation, Integration, and Governance’, in The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Regionalism, Börzel TA & T Risse (eds), 1st Editio, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, pp. 42–63 <https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199682300.013.4>; Börzel TA & T Risse, The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Regionalism, Börzel TA & T Risse (eds), 1st edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016 <https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199682300.001.0001>.

62. Korneev O, ‘International Organizations as Global Migration Governors: The World Bank in Central Asia’, Global Governance, 23.3, 2017, pp. 407, <https://doi.org/10.5555/1075-2846.23.3.403>.

63. Beck U, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage, 1992.

64. Korneev O, ‘International Organizations as Global Migration Governors: The World Bank in Central Asia’, Global Governance, 23.3, 2017, pp. 403–21 <https://doi.org/10.5555/1075-2846.23.3.403>.

65. Barnett MN & MFinnemore, Rules for the World : International Organizations in Global Politics, 1st edn. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004.

66. Zaum D, ‘The Authority of International Administrations in International Society’, Review of International Studies, 32, 2006, pp. 455–73.

67. Hülsse R, ‘Creating Demand for Global Governance: The Making of a Global Money-Laundering Problem’, Global Society, 21.2, 2007, pp. 154–78 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13600820701201731>.

68. Sending OJ, The Politics of Expertise: Competing for Authority in Global Governance, 1st edn. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.

69. Avant DD, M Finnemore & SK Sell, Who Governs the Globe?, Avant DD, M Finnemore & SK Sell (eds), Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 356 <https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511845369>.

70. Ibid., p. 3.

71. African Union, Africa Mining Vision. Addis Ababa, 2009 <https://womin.org.za/images/regional-and-global-perspectives/africa-region-law-and-policy/AfricanUnion–AfricaMiningVision2009.pdf> [accessed 15 September 2018].

72. Farooki M & PJourdan, ‘Africa & the European Union – Renewing Sustainable Partnerships in the Extractives Sector’, European Policy Brief. Freiburg: Strategic Dialogue on Sustainable Raw Materials for Europe (STRADE), 2018, pp. 1–8.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid.

76. International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) Principles are a set of 10 principles agreed upon by the member mining corporations that constitute the organisation, ICMM. The organisation was founded in 2001 to foster sustainable development performance in the mining and metals industry.

77. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance Standards define IFC clients' responsibilities for managing their environmental and social risks. They serve as the World Bank Group’s Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines.

78. Ramdoo I, Shopping for Raw Materials: Should Africa Be Worried about EU Raw Materials Initiative? Brussels, 2011 <www.ecdpm.org/dp105> [accessed 2 May 2018].

79. Ighobor K, ‘Africa Set for a Massive Free Trade Area’, Africa Renewal. New York, 2018 <www.un.org/africarenewal>.

80. Habashi F, ‘History of Mining in Africa . A Philatelic Review’, De Re Metallica, 9, June 2007, pp. 11–18.

81. Bennett I, A Kerr & CSchachter, Governing Extractives on a Global Scale : Challenges and Opportunities. Washington, DC, 2014.

82. Yager TR et al., ‘2012 Minerals Yearbook : Africa’, The Mineral Industries of Africa, 2015 <https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2012/myb3-sum-2012-africa.pdf>; Yager TR et al., ‘2014 Minerals Yearbook : Africa’, The Mineral Industries of Africa, 2017 <https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2014/myb3-sum-2014-africa.pdf>.

83. African Union, Africa Mining Vision. Addis Ababa, 2009 <https://womin.org.za/images/regional-and-global-perspectives/africa-region-law-and-policy/AfricanUnion–AfricaMiningVision2009.pdf> [accessed 15 September 2018].

84. European Commission, ‘Raw Materials Diplomacy’, COM, 2018 <https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/raw-materials/specific-interest/international-aspects_en> [accessed 17 July 2018].

85. Busia K & CAkong, ‘The African Mining Vision : Perspectives on Mineral Resource Development in Africa’, The Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, 8.1, 2017, pp. 145–92 <https://doi.org/10.4314/jsdlp.v8i1.7>.

86. Brown W, ‘A Question of Agency: Africa in International Politics’, Third World Quarterly, 33.10, 2012, pp. 1889–908 <https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2012.728322>.

87. Economic Commission for Africa, Minerals and Africa’s Development :The International Study Group Report on Africa’s Mineral Regimes. Addis Ababa, 2011 <www.africaneconomicdevelopment.com/Minerals-and-African-Development_Report.pdf> [accessed 3 May 2018].

88. Some researchers argue that China’s involvement in Africa is for its resource interest and inimical to gains made in human rights, environmental protection and debt sustainability. Swedlund HJ, ‘Is China Eroding the Bargaining Power of Traditional Donors in Africa?’, International Affairs, 93.2, 2017, pp. 389–408 <https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiw059>.

89. Jamasmie C, ‘China to Become World’s Main Consumer of Base Metals by 2017 –Report’, MINING.Com, 2013 <http://www.mining.com/china-to-become-worlds-main-consumer-of-base-metals-by-2017-report-37892/> [accessed 15 September 2018].

90. Busia K & CAkong, ‘The African Mining Vision: Perspectives on Mineral Resource Development in Africa’, The Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, 8.1, 2017, pp. 145–92 <https://doi.org/10.4314/jsdlp.v8i1.7>.

91. Mudronova J, How Can Africa Maximise Its Mineral Wealth? Development Strategies and Chinese Investment in Africa’s Mining Sector, South African Institute of International Affairs, Occasional Paper. Johannesburg, 2018 <www.saiia.org.za>.

92. Aguilar de Medeiros C and N M Trebatm, ‘Transforming Natural Resources into Industrial Advantage: The Case of China’s Rare Earths Industry’, Brazilian Journal of Political Economy, 37.3, 2018, pp. 504–26 <https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-31572017v37n03a03>; Vekasi K, ‘Politics, Markets, and Rare Commodities: Responses to Chinese Rare Earth Policy’, Japanese Journal of Political Science, 20.1, 2019, pp. 2–20 <https://doi.org/10.1017/S1468109918000385>.

93. World Bank Group, Africa’s Pulse : An Analysis of Issues Shaping Africa’s Economic Future. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2018, xviii <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30455>.

94. The Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Co-operation in Africa (CSSDCA) is a policy development process created to function within the framework of the African Union and was adopted at the 36th Session of the Assembly in Lomé, Togo in July 2000.

95. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) a development strategy programme of the AU adopted at the 37th session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government in July 2001. At the 11th extraordinary session in November 2018, NEPAD has been transformed into the African Union Development Agency (AUDA).

96. Busia K & CAkong, ‘The African Mining Vision: Perspectives on Mineral Resource Development in Africa’, The Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, 8.1, 2017, pp. 145–92 <https://doi.org/10.4314/jsdlp.v8i1.7>.

97. African Union, Africa Mining Vision. Addis Ababa, 2009 <https://womin.org.za/images/regionaland-global-perspectives/africa-region-law-and-policy/AfricanUnion–AfricaMiningVision2009.pdf> [accessed 15 September 2018], p. 1.

98. Country Mining Vision (CMV) developed by the African Minerals Development Centre (AMDC) and adopted by the AU member states in 2014 to support member states in the design and implementation of AMV compliant national mineral policies. Kojo Busia, ‘Africa Mining Vision and Country Mining Visions: Mainstreaming Mineral Resources for Development’. New York, 2015 <https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/busia.pdf> [accessed 8 March 2018].

99. African Development Bank and Global Financial Integrity, Illicit Financial Flows and the Problem of Net Resource Transfers from Africa: 1980–2009. Abidjan and Washington, DC, 2013 <www.gfintegrity.org/embargoed-gfi_afdb_iffs_and_the_problem_of_net_resource_transfers_from_africa_1980-2009-web.pdf> [accessed 28 September 2018].

100. Economic Commission for Africa, Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa. Addis Ababa, 2014 <https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/iff_main_report_26feb_en.pdf> [accessed 3 May 2018].

101. Economic Commission for Africa, Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa, p. 97.

102. Schlenther BO, ‘Addressing Illicit Financial Flows in Africa: How Broad Is the Whole of Government Approach Supposed to Be?’, Journal of Financial Crime, 23.4, 2016, pp. 1074–91 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-01-2016-0002>; Tafirenyika M, ‘Illicit Financial Flows from Africa’, Africa Renewal, 27.3, 2013, pp. 14–17 <https://doi.org/10.18356/695a854c-en>; Billon PL, Extractive Sectors and Illicit Financial Flows: What Role for Revenue Governance Initiatives?, 2011 <www.U4.no> [accessed 4 June 2018]; Economic Commission for Africa, Illicit Financial Flows: Why Africa Needs to ‘Track It, Stop It and Get It’. Addis Ababa, 2014 <www.uneca.org/illicit_financial_flows_why_africa_needs.pdf> [accessed 3 June 2018].

103. Nnadozie E, ILLICIT FINANCIAL FLOWS (IFF) TRACK IT, STOP IT, RECOVER IT! Presentation on the Report of the High-Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa. Harare, 2015 <www.acbf-pact.org/IFF20presentation.pdf> [accessed 4 September 2018].

104. Economic Commission for Africa, Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa.

105. APP, Equity in Extractives: Stewarding Africa’s Natural Resources for All, AFRICA PROGRESS PANEL. Geneva, 2013 <https://www.tralac.org/africa-progress-report-2013-equity-in-extractives.pdf>; Economic Commission for Africa, Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa.

106. United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962: Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources. New York, 1962 <https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/resources.pdf> [accessed 4 April 2018].

107. Ibid.

108. Malden A, ‘A Safer Bet? Evaluating the Effects of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative on Mineral Investment Climate Attractiveness’, Extractive Industries and Society, 4.4, 2017, pp. 788–94 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.01.008>.

109. Grant JA, ‘The Kimberley Process at Ten : Reflections on a Decade of Efforts to End the Trade in Conflict Diamonds’, in High-Value Natural Resources and Peacebuilding, Lujala P & SA Rustad (eds). London: Earthscan, 2012.

110. Sovacool BK, G Walter, T Van de Graaf & NAndrews, ‘Energy Governance, Transnational Rules, and the Resource Curse: Exploring the Effectiveness of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)’, World Development, 83, 2016, pp. 179–92 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.01.021>.

111. Warleigh-Lack A & Lvan Langenhove, ‘Introduction. Rethinking EU Studies: The Contribution of Comparative Regionalism’, Journal of European Integration, 32.6, 2010, pp. 541–62 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2010.518715>.

112. African Union, Africa Mining Vision. Addis Ababa, 2009 <https://womin.org.za/images/regionaland-global-perspectives/africa-region-law-and-policy/AfricanUnion–AfricaMiningVision2009.pdf> [accessed 15 September 2018]. p. 4.

113. Ibid.

114. European Commission (DG Enterprise), Tackling the Challenges in Commodity Markets and on Raw Materials. Brussels, 2011.

115. Isabelle Ramdoo, Shopping for Raw Materials: Should Africa Be Worried about EU Raw Materials Initiative? Brussels, 2011 <www.ecdpm.org/dp105> [accessed 2 May 2018].

Additional information

Funding

This special issue has been produced with the support of the European Union’s Erasmus+ Programme as a Jean Monnet Activity, through the project The European Union’s Normative Role in African Extractives Governance, implemented by the South African Institute of International Affairs. The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.