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ABSTRACT
The establishment of diplomatic relations between South Africa and China is an under-researched topic. Even less examined is the role of party-to-party relations between the African National Congress (ANC) and the Communist Party of China (CPC) in the process of building relations between these two states, as well as that of the early contact between South Africa’s National Party (NP) government and China. This research finds that the expectations of Pretoria and Beijing were largely incompatible in the early 1990s while no fundamental disagreement existed between South Africa and Taiwan at the time. The ‘Mandela factor’ and the general lack of knowledge about China in South Africa, furthermore, contributed to the prolonged process of building formal relations. In addition, the article also argues that the legacies of the early inter-party relations between the ANC and CPC, which played a role in South Africa’s decision-making and opinion formation in the early 1990s, cannot be ignored, and helps to explain the delay in the establishment of diplomatic relations to 1998.
Acknowledgements
This article is part of the research project entitled ‘China–Africa Relations: Achieves and Oral Historical Materials’ (16ZDA142) that is funded by the National Social Science Foundation of China. The authors greatly appreciate the constructive suggestions made by the anonymous reviewers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Lu Jiang is a research fellow of Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, and research associate of Fudan Development Institute.
Zhan Shu is a research fellow and the Director of the Centre for African Studies at China Foundation for International Studies in Beijing. He is also a former Chinese diplomat, having served as Ambassador to Rwanda and to Eritrea, and having and worked in a number of African countries. He went to South Africa many times for research during 1989–1995, and served as the political counsellor in the Chinese Embassy in South Africa, 2001–2003.
Notes
1 The cross-Strait issue (or Taiwan issue) derives from 1949 when the Kuomintang (KMT) was defeated by the Communist Party of China and retreated to the Taiwan Island. With support of the United States, Taiwan has since been able to form a long-standing separation and confrontation with the mainland. Despite that, ‘one-China’ is the principle that has always been upheld by the central government of PRC, and also accepted by the local government in Taipei through the ‘1992 Consensus’ – wherein both sides of the (Taiwan) Strait adhere to the ‘one-China’ principle and strive for the national reunification. In 1971, the United Nations decided to expel the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek and restore all the lawful rights to the People’s Republic of China, recognising the PRC as the only legitimate representative of China to the UN (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758). The ‘one-China’ principle is also acknowledged by the vast majority of states in the world.
2 SAIIA (South African Institute of International Affairs), South Africa and the Two Chinas Dilemma. Johannesburg: SAIIA & Foundation for Global Dialogue, 1995.
3 Alden C, ‘Solving South Africa’s Chinese puzzle: Democratic foreign policy making and the “two Chinas” question’, South African Journal of International Affairs, 5, 2, 1997, pp. 80–95.
4 He served as the ‘Consul-General’ in Durban (1994–8), ‘Director-General’ of Taipei Liaison Office in Durban (1998–9), and ‘Deputy Representative’ of Taipei Liaison Office in the Republic of South Africa (1999–2001).
5 Lin SH (Gary), The Relations Between the Republic of China and the Republic of South Africa (1948–1998). PhD Thesis of University of Pretoria, 2001.
6 Yang L, ‘The strategic decision of China–South Africa for establishing diplomatic relations (中国与南非建交的战略选择)’, Xiya Feizhou, 9, 2008, pp. 11–6.
7 Williams C & C Hurst, ‘Caught between two Chinas: Assessing South Africa’s switch from Taipei to Beijing’, South African Historical Journal, 70, 3, 2018.
8 Including, [Chinese mainland] Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, pp. 259–87; Lu M, ‘The tortuous process of establishing diplomatic relations between China and South Africa (中国与南非曲折建交)’, Xiangchao, 2009, pp. 39–42; Li Liqing, ‘Recalling the visit of Slovo to China (回忆斯洛沃访华)’, Dangdai Shijie, 3, 2015, pp. 39–41; Wen Xian, Brave Journey to the South Africa (闯荡南非). Beijing: Press of Dangdai Shijie, 2002. [South Africa] Mandela N & M Langa, Dare Not Linger: The Presidential Years. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017; Mandela N, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. Little Brown and Company, 1994; Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010 – This book collected memoirs of a number of South African diplomats in Chinese mainland and representatives in Taiwan, including John Selfe, Christo Prins, Johan Kotze, Johan Viljoen, Costa Georghiou, Roel Goris, Pierre Dietrichsen, PJ Botha, Les Labuschagne. [Taiwan] Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 369–432. [Russia] Shubin V, ANC: View from Moscow (2nd edition). Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2011.
9 The recent work by Williams C & C Hurst, ‘Caught between two Chinas: Assessing South Africa’s switch from Taipei to Beijing’, South African Historical Journal, 70, 3, 2018, for instance, has also referred to this new body of materials.
10 Respectively, South African former statesmen Aziz Pahad and Essop Pahad; South African scholars Garth le Pere and Eddy Maloka; Rodney Leong MAN, former Chairman of the Chinese Association of South Africa (CASA) and of the Transvaal Chinese Association (TCA); Chinese scholar Yang Lihua; Chinese former diplomats Li Liqing, Luo Yi, Zheng Yaowen, Liang Yinzhu and Du Xiaocong; and Chinese former journalist Wen Xian. For the brief biography of the interviewees and the interview information, see the footnotes below.
11 Personal interview, Du Xiaocong [Chinese Ambassador to Cape Verde (2015-present), worked in China Research Centre on South Africa in Pretoria (1991–5) and African Department of Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Beijing (1996–8)], Beijing, 29 December 2017.
12 Jiang Zemin’s congratulation telegraph to Mandela on the victory of the ANC in the general election, 5 May 1995.
13 ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 164; Alden C, ‘Solving South Africa’s Chinese puzzle: Democratic foreign policy making and the “two Chinas” question’, South African Journal of International Affairs, 5, 2, 1997, p. 83.
14 Xinhua News Agency, 11 April 1952.
15 Wu (1921–2008) later became one of statesmen in charge of foreign policy.
16 Ellis S, External Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 6–7.
17 Mandela N, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. Little Brown and Company, 1994, pp. 138–9.
18 Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s support for and solidarity with South Africa’s liberation struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, pp. 1219–21.
19 Xinhua News Agency, ‘South African Indian Congress Telegrams Chairman Mao, Requesting Support from China for Their Struggle against the Apartheid Government of South Africa; Chairman Mao Replies to Express Full Support (南非杜邦城印度人大会会议联合书记要求毛主席支持他们的主张反对南非政府歧视非白色人，毛主席复电表示完全支持)’, 15 September 1950; Xinhua News Agency, ‘Premier Zhou Replies the Telegraph of South African Indian Congress, supporting their anti-racist struggle (周恩来电复南非印度人大会联合书记，支持他们反种族歧视的正义斗争)’, 24 January 1952.
20 Ellis S, ‘The ANC in Exile’, African Affairs, 90, 360, 1991, pp. 442–3.
21 Personal interview, Eddy Maloka [South African scholar, author of South African Communist Party], Shanghai, 9 November 2017. Also, as recalled by Essop Pahad, it was only towards the end of 1960s that the ANC started to take a very strong position against China – Personal interview, Essop Pahad [South African statesman, scholar and former member of the Central Committee of SACP and the National Executive Committee of the ANC], Johannesburg, 11 September 2017. See also Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s support for and solidarity with South Africa’s liberation struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, p. 1223.
22 Shubin V, ANC: View from Moscow (2nd edition). Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2011, pp. 26–7, 52–3.
23 Ellis S, External Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960–1990. Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 27; Mathebula M, The Backroom Boy: Andrew Mlangeni’s Story. Johannesburg: Wits University Press and June and Andrew Mlangeni Foundation, 2017, pp. 1–33.
24 Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s support for and solidarity with South Africa’s liberation struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, pp. 1221–3.
25 The ‘Great Polemic’ was a ten-year-long ideological debate between Communist Party of China and Communist Party of Soviet Union in the 1960s.
26 Personal interview, Li Liqing [former Director General of Bureau 4, the International Department of Central Committee of Communist Party of China, received a number of SACP members including Joe Slovo and Blade Nzimande in China], Beijing, 25 August 2017; see also Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s support for and solidarity with South Africa’s liberation struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, p. 1223.
27 Personal interview, Yang Lihua [Chinese expert on South Africa based in Chinese Academy of Social Science, went to South Africa several times in late 1980s and early 1990s for academic exchange and received South African scholars in China during the same period], Beijing, 24 August 2017. Also, personal interview, Zheng Yaowen [Chinese Ambassador to Zimbabwe (1985–88) and former Director General of the Department of African Affairs of China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, paid a visit to South Africa in May 1991], Beijing, 25 August 2017.
28 Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s support for and solidarity with South Africa’s liberation struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, p. 1223.
29 Ibid., p. 1224.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid., p. 1235.
32 Personal interview, Li Liqing.
33 Zhong W & S Xu, ‘China’s Support for and Solidarity with South Africa’s Liberation Struggle’, in SADET (South African Democracy Education Trust), The Road to Democracy in South Africa (Volume 3). Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2008, p. 1234.
34 Personal interview, Li Liqing.
35 Inner-party bulletin, 1983, p. 2, cited in Maloka E, The South African Communist Party: Exile and After Apartheid,. Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2013, p. 87.
36 ‘Wu Xueqian Meets Delegation of ANC from South Africa (吴学谦会见南非非洲人国民大会代表团)’, People’s Daily, 2 June 1983.
37 ‘Xi Zhongxun Feasts Delegation of ANC from South Africa, Reiterating China’s Support for the Just Struggle of South African People (习仲勋宴请南非非洲人国民大会代表团，重申中国坚决支持南非人民政治斗争)’, People’s Daily, 4 April 1986.
38 ‘Central Committee of CPC Congratulates ANC on the 75th Anniversary of Its Establishment (中共中央致电，祝贺南非非洲人国民大会成立75年)’, People’s Daily, 8 January 1987; Personal interview, Li Liqing.
39 Unsorted SACP Archives, ‘Our visit to China’, cited in Maloka E, The South African Communist Party: Exile and After Apartheid,. Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2013, p. 88.
40 Personal interview, Li Liqing. That said, this does not mean that the CPC and SACP had reached entire agreement on the ideological front – according to personal interview with Luo Yi [former Chinese diplomat, worked in Bureau Four, the International Department of Central Committee of CPC (1977–2011), responsible for arranging Desmond Tutu’s trip in China in 1986. And worked in China’s embassy in South Africa (1999–2001), Beijing, 25 August 2017], the SACP then still harboured doubts about the so-called ‘socialism with Chinese characteristics’; instead they appreciated more the Cuban model of socialism.
41 Personal interview, Luo Yi.
42 Personal interview, Yang Lihua.
43 Ibid.
44 According to personal interview with Wen Xian [Chinese former journalist of People’s Daily in Southern Africa and reported the event of President Mandela announcing his decision to recognise the PRC from South Africa in 1996, Beijing, 12 October 2017], some high-ranking officials such as Johannes (Joe) Modise [member of the National Executive Committee of the ANC and the first Minister of Defense (1994–99) of new South Africa] opposed to sever ‘diplomatic relations’ with Taiwan in the early 1990s for the reason that China used to support the PAC instead of ANC during the apartheid period, and suggested, in turn, that China should solve the cross-Strait problem by itself for it used to hold a similar position in dealing with ANC-PAC relations. This line of argument from the South African side was also confirmed by Ambassador ZHENG Yaowen during the interview on 25 August 2017.
45 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, p. 384.
46 Personal Interview, Li Liqing.
47 Lu M, ‘The tortuous process of establishing diplomatic relations between China and South Africa (中国与南非曲折建交)’, Xiangchao, 2009, p. 41 – Lu M was a former Chinese diplomat in South Africa during 1993–9. Loh I-Cheng, however, dismissed that as rumours and said only 79 went to Taiwan with half of them visiting before the election, and denied that Taiwan paid ‘pocket money’ to the visitors – see Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, p. 416.
48 Personal interview, Aziz Pahad [former Deputy Head of the International Department of the ANC (1991–4) and then former Vice Foreign Minister of South Africa (1994–9)], Johannesburg, 11 September 2017; ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, pp. 166–8.
49 This was partially attributed also to the loose organisational structure of the ANC. According to the interview with LI Liqing, Mbeki told her that 80% of the eighteen ANC delegations in 1993, for instance, to the island were arranged directly by the Taiwan authority and not known by the International Department of the ANC.
50 Personal interview, Aziz Pahad.
51 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, p. 391.
52 According to the interview with LI Liqing, Joe Slovo and Blade Nzimande were invited several times by the Taiwanese ‘diplomats’ to visit Taiwan but both declined.
53 Hennie van Vuuren in his recent book (Apartheid Guns and Money: A Tale of Profit, C Hurst & Co Publishers, 2018) reveals some non-diplomatic interactions between the NP government and China. Certain details and conjectures involved in the book need to be further verified and particularly in relation to the interplay of China, the Soviet, the US, as well as some SADC countries against the specific context of the Cold War – which is, however, out of the scope of our research concern in this article.
54 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 260.
55 Personal interview, Liang Yinzhu [Chinese former Deputy Director-General of African Department of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ambassador to Nigeria and Namibia, went with Zheng Yaowen to South Africa in 1991 and attended the inauguration ceremony of President Mandela in May 1994], Beijing, 16 October 2017.
56 Rodney Leong MAN travelled to Botswana three times to pass messages from the Fred Conradie [Chief Director of South African Department of Foreign Affairs] to Dezheng Zhang [Chinese Ambassador in Botswana] – Interview with Rodney Leong MAN, Johannesburg, 12 July 2018.
57 Personal interview, Zheng Yaowen and Liang Yinzhu. See also Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, pp. 259–60.
58 Ibid.
59 Personal interview, Du Xiaocong. Essop Pahad also mentioned in the interview that they treated the Director of Chinese ‘Research Centre’ in Pretoria as the ‘Ambassador’ from China.
60 It was a return visit of van Heerden’s trip to China in November 1990 when both sides had some initial talks about the bilateral relations.
61 Personal interview, Zheng Yaowen.
62 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, pp. 260–2.
63 ‘Red China: Supping with long chopsticks’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, pp. 177–8.
64 Botha PJ, ‘China-South Africa: A chopsticks relationship’, 2008, <http://www.chinese-embassy.org.za/eng/zxxx/t471899.htm>.
65 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 264.
66 ‘Red China: Supping with long chopsticks’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 179.
67 Personal interview, Du Xiaocong.
68 Ibid.
69 ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 163.
70 Lu M, ‘The tortuous process of establishing diplomatic relations between China and South Africa (中国与南非曲折建交)’, Xiangchao, 2009, p. 40.
71 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 268.
72 Personal interview, Du Xiaocong.
73 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 284; Lu M, ‘Mandela’s China affection (曼德拉的中国情)’, Dangshi Bolan, 10, 2015, p. 37; Li X, ‘On Mandela’s spirit and its causes (论曼德拉精神及其产生原因)’, Xiya Feizhou, 6, 2014, pp. 76–7.
74 Ibid.
75 The Chinese side got to know that Mandela preferred to be invited by Chinese Government. See Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 267.
76 Lu J & Z Shu, ‘The establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Africa (中国南非建交始末)’, Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, Issue 3, 2018, p. 147.
77 Ibid., p. 266.
78 Ibid., p. 269. This was the first round of letter exchange between President JIANG Zemin and Nelson Mandela on the issue of establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. In the letter to Mandela, JIANG suggested both sides put the establishment of diplomatic ties on the agenda, but Mandela did not give a clear answer in his reply letter to JIANG.
79 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 270.
80 Personal interview, Liang Yinzhu. Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 403–407.
81 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 267.
82 Such as the Saudi Arabia in 1990, South Korea, Singapore and Israel in 1992.
83 Joe Slovo, who was then the chairperson of the SACP, visited the PRC in August 1993 immediately after Mandela went back from Taiwan – Personal interview, Li Liqing.
84 ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 165.
85 Aziz Pahad, in his interview, also reminded the authors of understanding Mandela’s philosophy that ‘you cannot just dump old friends’.
86 ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 165.
87 Ibid.
88 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 399–400.
89 Personal interview, Li Liqing.
90 Ibid.
91 Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, p. 271.
92 Personal interview, Liang Yinzhu; Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 403–7.
93 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 421–2.
94 Ibid., p. 424; Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (外交十记). Beijing: Press of Shijie Zhishi, 2003, pp. 277–8. The letter of Mandela was forwarded to Chinese President Jiang Zemin by Nzo during his visit to China in March 1996 (This was a reply to JIANG’s letter sent to Mandela in November 1995 and was within the second round of letter exchange between President Mandela and JIANG). Later in May 1996, Jiang wrote back to Mandela, and among other things, he thanked Mandela for his concern on the problem between Chinese mainland and Taiwan but expressed that Chinese people are capable to realise the unification of China by themselves.
95 United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 2758 – Restoration of the Lawful Rights of the People’s Republic of China in the United Nations A/RES/2758(XXVI), p. 1, 25 October 1971.
96 Personal interview, Aziz Pahad.
97 Ibid. Les Labuschagne, the then Director of South African Research Centre on China in Beijing and later the first Ambassador of South Africa to China, also expressed a similar point of view to the Chinese side, saying that ‘South African people had limited knowledge about China but those who had visited China tended to have good impression. In general, however, the ignorance of South Africans about China is unbelievable.’ He also commented that the mainland seemed to adopt a wait-and-see approach and behaved not as actively as the Taiwanese counterpart to cultivate relations with different parties in South Africa. Similar views could also be seen in Alden C, ‘Solving South Africa’s Chinese puzzle: Democratic foreign policy making and the “two Chinas” question’, South African Journal of International Affairs, 5, 2, 1997, p. 88.
98 One example of that could be seen in the gathering of different government agencies called on by Aziz Pahad in May 1995 wherein while the Ministry of Defense advocated developing relations with China, the Department of Trade and Industry tended to maintain the status quo, in fear that ceasing relations with Taiwan would cause loss to South African economy.
99 Personal interview, Aziz Pahad.
100 Taiwan proposed to offer $300 million to support the RDP of South Africa.
101 This is from the letter of President Mandela to Jiang in December 1996, and this was the third round of letter exchange between the two on the establishment of diplomatic relations.
102 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 369–436; Also, personal interview, Garth Le Pere [South Africa scholar], Addis Ababa, 22 June 2017.
103 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 394–395.
104 ‘Taiwan: Between the ROC and a hard place’, in Wolvaardt P, T Wheeler & W Scholtz (eds), From Verwoerd to Mandela: South African Diplomats Remember (Volume 2). Crink, 2010, p. 168.
105 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 409–10.
106 Mandela N & M Langa, Dare Not Linger: The Presidential Years. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017, p. 284.
107 Personal interview, Aziz Pahad.
108 Mandela N & M Langa, Dare Not Linger: The Presidential Years. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017, p. 284.
109 Personal interview, Li Liqing.
110 Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, pp. 418–9.
111 This was the second round of letter exchanges between President Mandela and JIANG.
112 Alden C, ‘Solving South Africa’s Chinese puzzle: Democratic foreign policy making and the “two Chinas” question’, South African Journal of International Affairs, 5, 2, 1997, p. 90; Loh I-Cheng, Loh I-cheng’s Diplomatic Life (微臣无力以回天：陆以正的外交生涯). Taipei: Press of Tianxia Wenhua, 2002, p. 425.
113 Xinhua New Agency, ‘South African government should discard unrealistic thinking (南非政府应该丢掉幻想)’, 5 September 1996; Gu P, ‘No way for “dual recognition” (“双重承认”此路不通)’, People’s Daily, 2 September 1996.
114 Personal interview, Yang Lihua, Wen Xian, Liang Yinzhu and Du Xiaocong.
115 As recalled by Aziz Pahad (interview on 11 September 2017), there could have been a voting within the ANC on the choice between the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, but the Party leadership tended to avoid that and preferred to wait until Mandela and some others gradually coming around to the ‘one-China’ policy.