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ABSTRACT
Since the adoption of the Abuja Declaration of Political Principles (1991) and the Supplementary Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance (2001) by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the regional organisation has declared ‘zero tolerance’ for unconstitutional changes of government, particularly military coups d’état. Despite these declarations, West Africa has continued to experience coups, with a resurgence in the number of these since 2020. This article examines ECOWAS' structures and strategies designed to work against such a resurgence of coups in the region. The article demonstrates that ECOWAS has advanced both diplomatic and non-diplomatic measures to respond to the phenomenon. However, while the regional body has appeared proactive in responding to the coups, it has appeared to have little success thus far; a mix of domestic, regional and international geopolitical factors – which the regional body has failed to address – continues to undermine political stability in the region.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
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14 Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of the New Nations, 27-8.
15 Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments.
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19 Muhammad Dan Suleiman, “Towards a Better Understanding of the Underlying Conditions of Coups in Africa,” E-International Relations, 2021, https://www.e-ir.info/2021/09/24/towards-a-better-understanding-of-the-underlying-conditions-of-coups-in-africa/
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23 ECOWAS Revised Treaty 1991, https://ecowas.int/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Revised-treaty-1.pdf
24 Article 1c, ECOWAS Supplementary Protocol, 2001
25 Article 1, Chapter 1, ECOWAS, 2001
26 Article 1e ECOWAS, 2001
27 Article 1b, ECOWAS, 2001
30 Supplementary Act A/SP.13/02/12 on Sanctions Against Member States that Fail to Honour their Obligations to ECOWAS
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32 Institut Montaigne, “Africa’s “Coup Contagion”: What is Driving the Rise in Military Intervention? Three questions to Hakeem Onapajo,” March 21, 2022, https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/africas-coup-contagion-what-driving-rise-military-intervention
33 Emily Cole, “Five Things to Know About Mali’s Coup,” United States Institute of Peace, August 27, 2020, https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/08/five-things-know-about-malis-coup
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36 Devermont, “Guinea: The Causes and Consequences of West Africa’s Latest Coup”.
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44 Voice of America (VOA), “Niger Junta Orders French Ambassador to Leave,” August 25, 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/niger-junta-orders-french-ambassador-to-leave-/7242125.html
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47 Mayeni Jones, “Why Russia is cheering on the Burkina Faso coup,” BBC October 10, 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63171771
48 (Muvunyi, 2020)
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50 Festus K. Aubyn, “ECOWAS Sanctions Against Mali Necessary, but May Be Counter-Productive,” IPI Global Observatory, February 2, 2022, https://theglobalobservatory.org/2022/02/ecowas-sanctions-against-mali-necessary-but-may-be-counter-productive/
51 Annie Risemberg, “ECOWAS Lifts Sanctions Against Mali”, Voice of America (VOA), July 4, 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/ecowas-lifts-sanctions-on-mali-burkina-faso-/6644141.html
52 Kabir Yusuf, “ECOWAS imposes sanctions on coup plotters in Guinea, Mali,” Premium Times, November 8, 2021, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/494180-ecowas-imposes-sanctions-on-coup-plotters-in-guinea-mali.html?tztc=1
53 Aljazeera, “ECOWAS sanctions Guinea, condemns Mali over Ivorian troops”, September 23, 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/23/ecowas-sanctions-guinea-condemns-mali-over-ivorian-troops#:~:text=West%20Africa%20regional%20bloc%20announces,for%20a%20transition%20to%20democracy.&text=The%20Economic%20Community%20of%20West,for%20a%20transition%20to%20democracy.
54 Katarina Hoije, ‘Burkina Faso Junta Reasserts Control After Thwarted Coup Attempt’, 28 September 2023, Bloomberg, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-28/burkina-faso-junta-reasserts-control-after-thwarted-coup-attempt
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56 Cristina Krippahl, “ECOWAS threatens ‘use of force’ against Niger junta,” DW, July 31, 2023, https://www.dw.com/en/ecowas-threatens-use-of-force-against-niger-junta/a-66398008
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58 Reuters, “West Africa bloc deploys stabilizing force to Guinea-Bissau,” June 21, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-africa-bloc-deploys-stabilizing-force-guinea-bissau-2022-06-20/
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60 The Africa Report, “Mali: Former Nigerian President Jonathan’s mediation flounders,” August 17, 2020, https://www.theafricareport.com/37689/mali-former-nigerian-president-jonathans-mediation-is-floundering/
61 News Agency of Nigeria, “Detained Mali’s president, prime minister released,” May 27, 2021, https://gazettengr.com/just-in-detained-malis-president-prime-minister-released/
62 Aljazeera, “Mali proposes five-year election delay to West African bloc,” January 1, 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/1/mali-proposes-five-year-election-delay-west-african-bloc-ecowas
63 France24, “West Africa's ECOWAS rejects Niger junta's three-year transition plan,” August 21, 2023, https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230821-west-africa-s-ecowas-rejects-niger-junta-s-three-year-transition-plan
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65 E. Gyimah-Boadi, Democratic Backsliding in West Africa: Nature, Causes, Remedies, Kofi Anan Foundation, December 2021.
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67 Freedom House, “West Africa's Democratic Progress is Slipping Away”.
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69 Benjamin Maiangwa, “Guinea coup highlights the weaknesses of West Africa’s regional body”, September 11, 2021, https://theconversation.com/guinea-coup-highlights-the-weaknesses-of-west-africas-regional-body-167650
71 Aljazeera, “Russia’s Lavrov vows aid for West Africa fight against armed groups,” February 8, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/8/russias-lavrov-vows-aid-for-w-africas-jihadist-fight
72 Paul Stronski, “Russia’s Growing Footprint in Africa’s Sahel Region,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 28, 2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/02/28/russia-s-growing-footprint-in-africa-s-sahel-region-pub-89135
73 Punch, “Nigeria, 10 ECOWAS in debt distress,” May 11, 2022, https://punchng.com/nigeria-10-ecowas-countries-in-debt-distress-report/
74 World Food Programme (WFP), “Extreme poverty rises in West Africa due to COVID-19 pandemic,” January 20, 2022, https://www.wfp.org/news/extreme-poverty-rises-west-africa-due-covid-19-pandemic
75 Premium Times, “Nigeria contributes $710m to ECOWAS, more than 13 countries put together,” December 6, 2018, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/299453-nigeria-contributes-710m-to-ecowas-more-than-13-countries-put-together.html?tztc=1
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77 ECOWAS Revised Treaty, 1993, http://www.courtecowas.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Revised_Treaty_1993_ENG.pdf
78 These are the words of a leader of a social movement in Ouagadougou, at a focus group 14 March 2020, authors' translation). From Simone Schnabel, Anthonia Witt, and Adjara Konkobo, “The ‘clubs of heads of state’ from below: local perceptions of the African Union, Ecowas and their 2014/14 interventions in Burkina Faso,” Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, 2022.
79 Anthonio Cascais, “ECOWAS criticized over West African coups,” DW, May 5, 2023, https://www.dw.com/en/ecowas-criticized-over-west-african-coups/a-61685721
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Hakeem Onapajo
Hakeem Onapajo is an associate professor in the department of political science and international relations at Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja. He is also a research associate at the Institute for the Future of Knowledge at the University of Johannesburg, Auckland Campus, South Africa. Dr. Onapajo is a recipient of the African Peacebuilding Network (APN) Individual Fellowship for the year 2023. He was awarded the postdoctoral fellowship of the African Humanities Program of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) in 2021. He researches conflict, peacebuilding and democratisation in Africa.
Dele Babalola
Dele Babalola is a senior lecturer in politics and international relations at Canterbury Christ Church University, UK. He formerly taught at Baze University, Nigeria, and the University of Kent, UK. His research interests include federalism, elections, political economy, ethnicity and conflict and terrorism in Africa. He is the author of The Political Economy of Federalism in Nigeria (Palgrave, 2019).