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Abstract
This paper focuses on two aspects of insecurity for the European Union: domestic terrorism and international crime. In the former case, such as with radicalized Islam in the West, identity is crucial to the putative terrorist, solving the group’s collective action problem. This paper models the strategic interaction between the government and a potential terrorist group. Space needs to be created so that Muslim migrants are able to merge their personal identities within their adopted European homelands and the socio‐economic disadvantage faced by Muslims in Europe needs redressing. In addition, a macro‐model is sketched of drugs production in a conflict‐ridden developing country, where it is argued that demand‐side policies of regulation may be superior to policies aimed at eradicating supply. Aid to fragile drug producing states should be broad‐based and poverty reducing, not just benefiting warlords.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on a background paper prepared for the European Union, financed by the EUSECON research project. The author thanks Syed Aamer Abdullah for research assistance, participants of the EUSECON Workshop, Brussels, 23–24 September 2008, an anonymous referee of this journal and the guest editor of this special issue for their comments on an earlier version of the paper.
Notes
2 The examples cited here represent a small selection of the burgeoning literature on terrorism.
3 For example, by the Dutch politician Geert Wilders in his film, Fitna.
4 ‘…We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another – the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct’ (Quran: 049.013). ‘And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the difference of your languages and colours’ (Quran: 030.022). English translations from Marmaduke Pickthall’s, The Glorious Quran, http://www.islam101.com/quran/QTP/index.htm
5 ‘Say (O Muhammad): We believe in Allah and that which is revealed unto us and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which was vouchsafed unto Moses and Jesus and the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered’ (Quran: 003.084).
6 Consider an excerpt from Muhammad’s Last Sermon (circa 632 AD): ‘O people, Remember that your Lord is One. An Arab has no superiority over a non‐Arab nor a non‐Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a black person has no superiority over a white person, nor a white person has any superiority over a black person, except by piety and good action. Indeed the best among you is the one with the best character …’ http://www.themodernreligion.com/prophet/prophet_lastsermon.htm. Ali, the 4th Islamic Caliph, also the cousin and son‐in‐law of Muhammad in a letter to Malik‐e‐Ashtar, his governor designate to Egypt (circa 656–661 AD): ‘Remember, Malik, that amongst your subjects there are two kinds of people: those who have the same religion as you have; they are brothers to you, and those who have religions other than that of yours, they are human beings like you. — Let your mercy and compassion come to their rescue and help in the same way and to the same extent that you expect Allah to show mercy and forgiveness to you’ (Nahjul Balagha) http://www.al-islam.org/nahjul/letters/letter53.htm#letter53.
7 De Grauwe and Storti (Citation2009) demonstrate how globalization helps to lower the price of illicit drugs.
8 Good examples could be given by contrasting the present Danish and Spanish governments. The former’s negative policies towards Muslims are very discernable, unlike the government of the present Prime Minister of Spain, Zapatero.
9 Note group behaviour with respect to e has a different magnitude to individual, er .
10 This includes higher job discrimination (unemployment) amongst Muslim youths, widely believed to have sparked off the riots in France in 2005.
11 The distinction between legal activities and narcotics production follows the dichotomy in Caruso (Citation2007) between activities that are subject to secure property rights and contestable activities that may result in conflict.
12 DUP was the original longhand in the lexicon of economics for corruption. It also resonates with our present‐day preoccupation with the saliency of institutions in determining growth.
13 There is a huge amount of value added between the primary commodity (the opium or coca plant’s harvest) and the final valued added in terms of heroin or cocaine.
14 I am assuming that the demand for M (for example addictive drugs) is highly inelastic.