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ABSTRACT
In March 2009, President Marc Ravalomanana of the Island of Madagascar was ousted during a coup d’état led by the Mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, and his supporters. After the coup, Ravalomanana and his family fled to South Africa where they remained in exile from 2009 to 2014. To restore constitutional order in Madagascar, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), in July 2009, took the lead in a mediation process involving all Malagasy and other key stakeholders. SADC’s mediation efforts, led by former President Chissano, formally ended in 2013 with the holding of democratic elections. The mediation effort, which lasted five years, was conducted in a very competitive and ‘crowded’ field. The ‘crowded’ field was characterised by in-fighting amongst the various international bodies for power and influence including ‘spoiler’ tactics used by vested interests to hinder the mediation process and prevent the return of Ravalomanana to Madagascar. This article looks specifically at the ‘spoiler’ role that France played during the mediation process to safeguard her interests in Madagascar under the Sarkozy Administration. France is known to intervene in the political and economic affairs of her former colonies and, during the 2009 coup, this was no exception.
Notes
1 Wikileaks Cables, Madagascar, 2009; Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
2 Madagascar became a member of the organization in 2005.
3 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar, 1-14.
4 McGowan and Johnson, African Military Coups d'État and Underdevelopment, 633–66.
5 Interview with Ravalomanana’s former Advisor, 2019.
6 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar, 1–14.
7 The political actors and institutions included Andriamparany Radavidson, the Comité National d’Observation des Elections (National Committee of Observation of the Elections) (CNOE) and the Fiombonan'ny Fiangonana Kristiana eto Madagasikara (FFKM).
8 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
9 The decision to establish the International Contact Group on Madagascar occurred during a meeting held in Addis Ababa on 30 April 2009.
10 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
11 The JMT-M included His Excellency Mr. Ablassé Ouedraogo (AU Special Envoy), His Excellency Edem Kodjo (Special Envoy of the OIF) and His Excellency Tiebile Dramé (Special Envoy of the UN); Lanz and Gasser, A crowded field. 1–22.
12 Lanz and Gasser, A crowded field.
13 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
14 Lanz and Gasser, A crowded field.
15 Cawthra, The Role of SADC in Managing political crisis and conflict, 1–38.
16 Ibid.
17 Witt, Mandate impossible, 205–22.
18 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
19 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar, 1–14.
20 Lanz, and Gasser, A crowded field.
21 Kotzé, The Issue of Implementation Enforcement, 1–24.
22 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
23 Onwuegbuzie, et al., Qualitative analysis techniques for the review of the literature, 1–28.
24 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes, 5–6.
25 Aggestam, Internal and external dynamics of spoiling, 23–5.
26 Newman and Oliver, Peace Building and Spoilers, 101–10.
27 Wanis-St. John, Peace Processes, Secret Negotiations and Civil Society, 1–9.
28 Ostendorf, Third parties dealing with spoilers in peace processes. 1–54.
29 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes, 8–7.
30 Ibid.
31 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
32 Ibid.
33 Newman and Oliver, Peace Building and Spoilers.
34 Ibid.
35 Kastrati, Methods Used to Deal with Peace Process Spoilers.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid; Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
38 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
39 Ibid.
40 Hofmann and Schneckener, Engaging non-state armed actors in state and peace-building, 1–19.
41 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes; Kastrati, Methods Used to Deal with Peace Process Spoilers.
45 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
46 Ibid.
47 Kastrati, Methods Used to Deal with Peace Process Spoilers.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid.
50 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
51 Ibid.
52 Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar.
53 Ibid; Britannica, Malagasy Republic/Madagascar (1960-present).
54 Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid.
57 Akhalbey, How the Malagasy Uprising spurred Madagascar’s fight for independence from France.
58 Cawthra, The Role of SADC in Managing political crisis and conflict.
59 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France, 101–20.
60 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
61 Ibid.
62 Mann, Madagascar heads for crunch presidential elections.
63 Nyabola, French influence raises issue of decolonisation in Madagascar. Edited by Financial Times.
64 Marcus, Political change in Madagascar
65 Saura, Philibert Tsiranana.
66 Ibid, 34.
67 Vernochet, Ferdinand Deleris. Ratsiraka, 498–9.
68 Global Security, Madagascar - French Relations.
69 Ibid.
70 Saura, Philibert Tsiranana.
71 Thompson Corporate, Madagascar.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid.
74 Taylor, France à fric. 1064–88; Koddenbrock, et al., Towards a Political Economy of Monetary Dependency.
75 Taylor, France à fric.
76 Li, ‘FrançAfrique’
77 Stainsby, Devastation, Madagascar; Rupiya, 2017, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
78 Ibid; Promskaya, France still robbing its ‘former’ African colonies.
79 Li, ‘FrançAfrique’
80 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
81 Associated Press, French court OKs end to Rwanda genocide investigation.
82 Marcus, Political change in Madagascar
83 Gow, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka and the Malagasy Socialist Revolution, 409–39.
84 Gow, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka and the Malagasy Socialist Revolution.
85 Ibid.
86 Gow, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka and the Malagasy Socialist Revolution.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid.
89 Gow, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka and the Malagasy Socialist Revolution.
90 Marcus, Political change in Madagascar
91 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
92 Ibid
93 Ibid.
94 Ibid.
95 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
96 Fabricius and Reuters, The Mercury.
97 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
98 Ibid.
99 Al Jazeera, Timeline.
100 Ibid.
101 Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
102 Ibid.
103 Ploch and Cook, Madagascar’s Political Crisis, 1–22.
104 Ibid.
105 Al Jazeera, Timeline
106 Crisis Group, Madagascar. Report, Africa Report.
107 BBC, Madagascar Country Profile.
108 Ibid.
109 Cawthra, The Role of SADC in Managing political crisis and conflict: The Cases of Madagascar and Zimbabwe.
110 Ibid.
111 Ibid; Connolly, The Troubled Road to Peace. 1–8.
112 Dresch et al., Madagascar.
113 Lanz and Gasser, A crowded field; Ratsimbaharison, The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar.
114 Andriamananjara, French Ambassador expelled from Madagascar because he was bad luck?
115 Interview with Ravalomanana’s former Advisor, 2019.
116 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
117 Interview with Ravalomanana’s former Advisor, 2019.
118 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
119 Andriamananjara, French Ambassador expelled from Madagascar because he was bad luck?
120 Les quatre mouvances refers to the four political movements formed around the former presidents of Madagascar (Ravalomanana, Ratsiraka, Zafy) and Rajoelina.
121 The ICG-M had broad-based membership that included the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), representatives of both the African UNSC non-permanent states of Uganda, Burkina Faso and Libya, and the UNSC P5, in addition to the Joint Mediation Team-Madagascar members (JMT-M).
122 Report of the SADC Mediator on the crisis in Madagascar. 2009.
123 Dresch et al., Madagascar.
124 Ibid.
125 Ibid.
126 Dresch et al., Madagascar.
127 Ibid.
128 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar.
129 Kotzé, The Government of National Unity as a Transitional Power-Sharing Institution in Madagascar, 9-22.
130 Ibid; Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar.
131 Ploch and Cook, Madagascar’s Political Crisis.
132 Tanzania was the Chair of the Troika Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation at the time.
133 Dresch et al., Madagascar.
134 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar: Mediation and the AU Policy on Unconstitutional Change of Government.
135 Dewar et al., Madagascar: Time to make a fresh start.
136 Ibid.
137 Ibid.
138 Melly and Darracq, A New Way to Engage? French Policy in Africa from Sarkozy to Hollande.
139 Onyango, The place of spoilers in peace processes in Sudan, 167–80.
140 Ibid.
141 Stedman, Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes.
142 Ibid.
143 Rupiya, SADC’S Intervention and Relapse in Madagascar’s Political Crisis 2009–2014 and the revealed role of France.
144 Connolly, The Troubled Road to Peace.
145 Wikileaks Cables, 2009.
146 Ibid.
147 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
148 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
149 Masupha, Evaluating the explanatory value of Brahimi And Ahmed’s Seven Deadly Sins Of Mediation.
150 Wikileaks Cables, 2009.
151 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
152 Wikileaks Cables, Madagascar
153 France24, Rajoelina stopped from Addressing UN Assembly.
154 Ibid.
155 Lanz and Gasser, A crowded field.
156 Crisis Group, Madagascar.
157 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar:.
158 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
159 Respondent from the SADC Mediation Team, 2019.
160 Wikileaks Cables, 2009.
161 Ibid.
162 DIRCO, Madagascar situation since elections.
163 Nathan, A Clash of Norms and Strategies in Madagascar.
164 Wikileaks Cables, 2009.
165 Dewar et al., Madagascar.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Katiana Sandra Ramsamy
Katiana Sandra Ramsamy is currently a researcher and a PhD candidate at the Univeristiy of Witwatersrand. She did her undergraduate studies at the University of Cape Town and completed her Honours and Master’s Degrees in International Relations at the same institution. She is Mauritian-born but grew up in Zambia and has lived in Botswana and Madagascar. She currently lives in Johannesburg, South Africa.