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ABSTRACT
This study explored whether the African Union’s peace operations driven by the ‘African solutions’ approach is enough or not. To bear evidence, this study uses the AU’s intervention in Darfur to interrogate the efficacy of the ‘African solutions’. The reason for selecting the case of Darfur is motivated due to the following two critical rationales. In the first place, this state has faced a prolonged internal conflict state of affairs. More importantly, the case of Darfur is chosen mainly because the case is one of the glaring examples of the AU’s comprehensive peace operation. The interviews were conducted in Ethiopia (Addis Ababa) and Sudan (Khartoum). This study argues that given the reluctance of international actors to engage in Africa to tackle instabilities, the idea of ‘African solutions to African problems’ seems an alternative approach to the multifaceted security challenges of the continent of Africa. However, currently, there is a wide gap between the AU’s ambitions and its actual accomplishment; for practical reasons, the ‘African solutions’ maxim requires a sober political and financial commitment from the member states of the AU.
Notes
1 Ryle, ‘Peoples & Cultures of Two Sudans’, 78.
2 Salih, ‘Conflict and Nation Building’, 187.
3 Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa after the Cold War, 116.
4 Salih, ‘Conflict and Nation Building’, 186.
5 Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan, 56; Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide, 15.
6 Agena, ‘Contributory Factors to the 2003 Darfur Conflict in Sudan and African Union (AU) Intervention Strategies’, 62.
7 Ibid., 67.
8 Powell, ‘The African Union's Emerging Peace and Security Regime Opportunities and Challenges for Delivering on the Responsibility to Protect’, 41; Daly, Darfur's Sorrow, 110; Mamdani, ‘How Can We Name the Darfur crisis’?, 110.
9 AU PSC Communiqué, ‘Communiqué of the 5th Session of the Peace and Security Council on the crisis in the Darfur region of the Sudan’, 2.
10 AU PSC Communiqué, ‘Communiqué of the 952nd Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Sudan’, 3.
11 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in Bringing about Peace in Africa’, 153.
12 Ekengard, ‘The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS)’, 13.
13 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in Bringing about Peace in Africa’, 153.
14 AU PSC Communiqué, ‘Communiqué of the 5th Session of the Peace and Security Council on the crisis in the Darfur region of the Sudan’, 2.
15 Ekengard, ‘The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS)’, 14.
16 AU PSC Communiqué, ‘Communiqué of the Fifth Session of the Peace and Security Council on the crisis in the Darfur region of the Sudan’, 2.
17 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in Bringing about Peace in Africa’, 153.
18 Brosche and Rothbart, ‘Violent Conflict and Peace Building’, 118.
19 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 308 ; Dersso, ‘The Role and Place of the African Standby Force within the African Peace and Security Architecture’, 1; Apuuli, ‘The African Union’s Notion of ‘African solutions to African problems’ and the Crises in Côte d’Ivoire (2010–2011) and Libya (2011)’, 136; Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African problems’, 48.
21 UN doc. S/PV.5868, April 16, 2008, 34.
22 Allafrica.com/stories/200105290190.html.
23 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 310; Lobakeng, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’?, 1.
24 Murithi, ‘The African Union’s Foray into Peacekeeping’, 17.
25 Ani, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 88.
26 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 311.
27 Mays, ‘African Solutions for African Problems’, 109.
28 Ani, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 88.
29 Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African problems’, 49.
30 Ibid., 49.
31 Alpha Oumar Konaré´s speech at the UN Security Council debate on the issue of peace and security in Africa 16 April 2008, 34.
32 Ofeibea Quist-Arcton, ‘Powell Promises U.S. Support but Says Africa Must Help Itself’ , allafrica.com/stories/200105290190.html.
33 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 311.
34 British Prime Minister Tony Blair, on his week-long tour.
35 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 315.
36 Ibid.
37 Mays, ‘African Solutions for African problems’, 117–8.
38 Ibid., 118–22.
39 Ani, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 95.
40 Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 49.
41 Williams, The African Union's Conflict Management Capabilities, 318; Karari, ‘ Responsibility to Protect in Kenyan and Darfur Crises’, 175.
42 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 322.
43 Mays, ‘African Solutions for African Problems’, 107; Ani, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 88.
44 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 323.
45 Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 55.
46 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 310.
47 Williams, The African Union's Conflict Management Capabilities, 318; Karari, ‘Responsibility to Protect in Kenyan and Darfur Crises’, 175.
48 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 318.
49 Beza, ‘The African Solutions for African Problems’, 456.
50 Klingebiel et al., Donor Contributions to the Strengthening of the African Peace and Security Architecture, 65–6.
51 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 322–3.
52 Lotze, ‘Strengthening African Peace Support Operations’, 4.
53 de Coning, ‘Adapting the African Standby Force to a Just-in-time Readiness Model’, 146.
54 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 318.
55 Ibid., 318–9.
56 Ani, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 98.
57 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 319.
58 Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 55.
59 Mays, ‘African Solutions for African Problems’, 132.
60 Ibid.
61 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 326.
62 Interview with D, 06 March 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
63 Murithi, ‘The African Union’s Foray into Peacekeeping’, 9.
64 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 889th Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the activities of the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) and the situation in Darfur’, 1.
65 On 18 July 2005, Ambassador Baba Gana Kingibe (head of AMIS) made an interview in Khartoum, Sudan with IRIN (the U.N. news agency) on 21 March 2019; IRIN changed its name to The New Humanitarian . https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/sudan-interview-amb-baba-gana-kingibe-head-amis
66 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 1st Session of the Peace and Security Council on enhancing the effectiveness of the African Union mission in Sudan (AMIS) in the Darfur region of Sudan’, 2.
67 Brosche and Rothbart, ‘Violent Conflict and Peace Building’, 118.
68 Interview with senior AMIS officials ‘A’, 10 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan.
69 Mohale, ‘Burden-sharing and Hybrid Peacekeeping Operations in Somalia and Sudan’, 86.
70 Murithi, ‘The African Union’s Foray into Peacekeeping’, 10.
71 Mohale, ‘Burden-sharing and Hybrid Peacekeeping Operations in Somalia and Sudan’, 86.
72 Interview with ‘W’, 15 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan
73 Birikorang, ‘Towards attaining peace in Darfur’, 10 ; Crichton, ‘Prospects of an Effective African Peacekeeping Capability’, 74; Mohale, ‘Burden-sharing and Hybrid Peacekeeping Operations in Somalia and Sudan’, 89–90.
74 Institute for Peace and Security Studies, ‘African-centered Solutions for Peace and Security’, 7.
75 Yohannes, ‘African-Centered Solutions’, 64.
76 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 322–3.
77 Interview with representative from United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA) ‘Y’, 13 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan
78 Interview with ‘K’, 25 February 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
79 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 325.
80 Yohannes, ‘African-Centered Solutions’, 64.
81 Interview with western diplomat ‘X’, 12 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan.
82 Yohannes, ‘African-Centered Solutions’, 65.
83 Ibid.
84 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in bringing about peace in Africa’, 153.
85 Institute for Peace and Security Studies, ‘African-centered Solutions for Peace and Security’, 8.
86 Interview with G, 19 February 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
87 African Union, ‘Main successes of the AU in Peace and Security, challenges and Mitigation Measures in Place’, 3.
88 Interview with senior AMIS official ‘A’, 10 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan.
89 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 325.
90 Nathan, ‘African Solutions to African Problems’, 55.
91 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in Bringing about Peace in Africa’, 113.
92 Oxfam International, ‘Africa’s Missing Billions’, 3.
93 Commey, ‘African Union’, 14.
94 Interview with T, 16 May 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
95 Murithi, ‘The Responsibility to Protect, as Enshrined in Article 4 of the Constitutive Act of the African Union’, 24.
96 Sifolo, ‘Assessing the Role and Capability of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union in bringing about peace in Africa’, 158.
97 Bergholm, ‘The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur’, 33–4.
98 Interview with P, 24 February, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
99 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 913rd Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Darfur and the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) transition’, 2.
100 Interview with western diplomat ‘X’, 12 April 2020, in Khartoum, Sudan.
101 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 112nd Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Darfur’, 1.
102 Darfur Consortium, ‘Putting People First’, 6.
103 Brahimi Report, ‘Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations’, 11.
104 Interview with Q, 23 February 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
105 AU PSC Communiqué . ‘Communiqué of the 23rd Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in the Darfur region of the Sudan,’ 1.
106 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 952nd Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Sudan,’ 3.
107 Grignon and Kroslak, ‘The Problem with Peacekeeping’, 186.
108 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 927th Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Darfur and the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) Transition,’ 2.
109 Williams, ‘Keeping the Peace in Africa’, 326–7; Neethling, ‘Whither peacekeeping in Africa’, 5; Solomon, ‘African solutions to Africa’s problems?’, 69.
110 AU PSC Communiqué. ‘Communiqué of the 931st Meeting of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in Sudan,’ 3.
111 Ayangafac and Cilliers, ‘Assessing the capacity of African Peace and Security architecture’, 143.
112 Interviews with AU officials ‘Z’, 02 March 2020, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
113 Lotez, Strengthening African Peace Support Operations, 76.
114 Murithi, ‘The African Union’s Foray into Peacekeeping’, 17.
115 Lotez, Strengthening African Peace Support Operations, 76.
116 Murithi, ‘The African Union’s Foray into Peacekeeping’, 17.
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Bewuketu Dires Gardachew
Bewuketu Dires Gardachew holds a PhD in Political Science and International Studies and MA in Peace and Security Studies, and currently works in the department of Political Science and International Studies at Bahir Dar University. His research interests include security, peace and politics in the Horn of Africa.