![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Academic literature gave less emphasis to the causes of insecurity of the society in Africa, and the role of the indigenous institutions to minimise the insecurity problems. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the sources of insecurity and the roles of the afersata (indigenous communal court) in solving insecurity problems in Ethiopia focusing on the Semen and Begemider Governorate General. This Governorate General existed in Ethiopia from the periods 1941–1974 comprising various cultural groups within it. It included Amhara, Agaw, Kimant, Tigrie, Kunama, and Bete Israel groups. Qualitative methodology was employed for this research, in which archival sources available in the North Gondar Administrative Zone were significantly utilised. Besides, secondary and oral sources were thoroughly scrutinised. The finding shows that banditry, imposition of unfair taxes and fees, and mal-administration had threatened the security of human livelihood in Semen and Begemider Governorate General from the periods 1941–1974. Indigenous institutions such as Afersata played pivotal roles in minimising these security problems at least by identifying unknown offenders in the community.
Acknowledgments
I thank my advisors Professor Shumet Sishagn and Professor Temesgen Gebyehu for their constructive criticism and comments on the initial draft of the manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Endalcachew Bayeh, ‘Human security in the horn of Africa: Trends and Challenges,’ International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development 2014; 1(7),p. 342; Serge Svizzero, ‘ Pre-Neolithic Economy,’ History of Economic Ideas, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2014), p. 29; Plangshak Musa Suchi, ‘ Investment in Security Forces and Human Development Challenges in Africa,’ Africa Development / Afrique et Développement, Vol. 44, No. 1, Special Issue on Money, Security and Democratic Governance in Africa (I) / (2019), p. 65, Marelize Schoeman, The African concept of Ubuntu and restorative justice, (Burlington: Ashagate publishing company, 2013),pp 292.
2 Paul D. Williams, ‘Thinking about Security in Africa,’ International Affairs (Royal Institute of NInternational Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 6, (Nov. 2007), p. 1035.
3 Suren pillay and Helen Scanlon, ‘Concepts of Peace and the Politics of Justice in AfricaPenal Reform,’ Centre for Conflict Resolution (2008),pp.16–7; Hema, Hargovan, ‘Restorative Justice and Domestic Violence: Some Exploratory Thoughts,’ Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, Volume 1, 1(2005), p.49; Endalew Lijalem Enyew, ‘A Move Towards Restorative Justice in Ethiopia: Accommodating Customary Dispute Resolution Mechanisms with the Criminal Justice System,’ MA Thesis in Peace and Conflict Transformation, University of Tromsø,(Spring 2013),pp.36–7; Abebe Bahiru, ‘Approach to Integrate Indigenous Dispute Resolution Mechanisms as Restorative Justice in Ethiopian Criminal Justice System,’ Sociology and Anthropology 7(7), (2019),pp.216-317. 313–26;Marelize, pp.300–2.
4 North Gondar Zone Administrative Office (N.G.A.Z.O), Folder No 480, File No 60, A Letter from qegnazmach Bekele Zelelew, Director to country governorate vice minister, 1954 EC.
5 Barbara Hendrie, "Now the People Are Like a Lord"- ‘Local Effects of Revolutionary Reform in a Tigray Village, Northern Ethiopia," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University College London, 1999), p.65; Ya Agar Gezat Masehet, 1st year No. 5(Tahesas 16, 1954 E.C), p. 13; North Gonder Zone Administrative Office (N.G.A.Z.O), Folder No 480 File No 60, A Letter from qegnazmach Bekele Zelelew, Director to country governorate vice minister, ref No 1954 EC.
6 Earl Conteh-Morgan, Peacebuilding, and Human Security: A Constructivist Perspective,’ International Journal of Peace Studies, Volume 10, Number 1, Spring/Summer (2005), pp.70–1.
7 Personal interview with Anilay Meshesha, Yengusie Gebeyehu, Demelash Gifayehu and Birhan Tariku, 13 October 2020
8 Endalcachew, 352; Paul, p.1023.
9 Paul, p.1035; Personal interview with Wondimu Sibihat, Alemu Hailie, Alem Belay, Tirusew Kindu, Tewabech Amsalu, 15 October 2020.
10 Nana K. Poku, Neil Renwick and Jaoa Gomes Porto, ‘Human Security and Development in Africa,’ International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Nov. 2007, Vol. 83, No. 6, (Nov. 2007), p.1158; Paul, p.1035.
11 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No. 237 ፀጥታ File No. 2/68, A Letter from Balay Hadera to Major General Nega Tegegne, Begemider and semen governorate endersie, 1966EC.
12 Margaret Morgan, ‘Continuities and traditions in Ethiopian history: an investigation of the reign of Tewodros,’ Ethiopian Observer, (1968-1969), p.249; Gebre Wold, pp.307,319; Stanley Fisher, "Traditional Criminal Procedure in Ethiopia," The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn, 1971), pp. 713–14
13 Salome Gebre Egziabher, ‘The Ethiopian Patriots 1936- 1941,’ Ethiopian Observer Vol 12, (1968-1969),p.65; Gebre Wold, pp.306–7,319.; N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Demis Berihun, governor of Libo kemkem awraja to Tekelay Gizat tsefet bet, 1965EC.
14 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Wogera awraja administrative office to Begemider and Semen Teqilay Gizat administrative office, 1961EC.
15 Schwab,p.80; Belay Zewude Ayyele, ‘Determinants of Tax Revenue Performance: Ethiopian Federal Government," (MA Thesis, Department of Accounting and Finance, Addis Ababa University, 2006), pp.17–8; Gebre Wold, pp.308,319; N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ጠ 22, File No 55, A letter from Tagele Maru Begmimder and Semen TeqilayGizat Bejroned to Finance minister minster Deta, 1964E; Margaret Morgan, ‘Continuities and traditions in Ethiopian history: an investigation of the reign of Tewodros,’ Ethiopian Observer, (1968-1969), p.249; Gebre Wold, pp. 307,319; Stanley Fisher, "Traditional Criminal Procedure in Ethiopia," The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn, 1971), pp. 713–14.
16 Temesgen, pp.570; Sandra Joireman, ‘Contracting for Land: Lessons from Litigation in a Communal Tenure Area of Ethiopia,’ Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1996), pp. 431–32; N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ጠ 22, File No 55, A letter from qegnazmach Bekele Zelelew to yager gizat mikitil minister, 1945EC.
17 Kirshna Ahooja, ‘Development and Legislation in Ethiopia,’ Ethiopia Observer 10(1)(1966), pp. 157–58,260–61; Gebre Wold, pp.307,319; N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ጠ 22, File No 55, A letter from Tagele Maru Begmimder and Semen Teqilay Gizat Bejroned to Finance minister minster Deta, 1964EC(See appendix 2).
18 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ጠ 22, File No 55, A letter from Begmider and semen Teqilay Gizat administrative office to all seven awraja’s administrative offices 1951EC.
19 Gebre Wold, pp. 307,319; Personal interview with Wondimu Sibihat, Alemu Hailie, Alem Belay, Tirusew Kindu, Tewabech Amsalu 17 October 2020.
20 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Wogera awraja administrative office to Begemider and Semen Teqilay Gizat administrative office, 1961EC.
21 Salome Gebre Egziabher, ‘The Ethiopian Patriots 1936- 1941,’ Ethiopian Observer Vol 12, (1968-1969),p.65; Gebre Wold, pp.306–7,319.; N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Demis Berihun, governor of Libo kemkem awraja to TeqilayGizat tsefet bet, 1965EC.
22 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No 220 File No 18, A letter from Mahiber Bata to litennel colonel Tamerat Yigezu, Begemidir and Semen general governor,1960 EC; A letter from Ye Gonder Adbarat mirt ena Fejewoch to qenazmach Bekele Zelelew, Begmider and Semen TeqilayGizat Director, 1958EC.
23 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Kefayalew Tamiru to Wogera awraja astedadaer tsefet bet, 1950EC.
24 Daniel Weldegebriel, " Land Rights and Expropriation in Ethiopia," (Doctoral Thesis in Land Department of Real Estate and Construction Management, Royal Institute of Technology, 2013), pp.55–6; Barbara,p.47; Peter Schwab, ‘The Tax System of Ethiopia,’ The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Jan. 1970), pp. 77–8; Taddese Lencho, "The Ethiopian Tax System: Excesses and Gaps, "Michigan State International Law Review Vol. 20:2(2012), pp.329–30; Gebrie Worku, Tax Accounting in Ethiopian Context, 2nd Ed.,(Addis Ababa: Alem Printing Press, Ethiopia, 2008), pp. 3-4; ‘A Proclamation to Provide for a Tax on Land,’ Negarit Gazéta (Proclamation No. 8, March 30, 1942),p.17; ‘A Proclamation to Provide for a Tax on Education,’ Negarit Gazéta (Proclamation No. 94, November 30, 1947),p15; Bahru Zewde, ‘Economic Origins of the Absolutist State In Ethiopia (1916-1935),’ Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 17 (November 1984), pp. 8,13.
25 Schwab, pp. 79-80; Temesgen Gebeyehu, ‘Land Tenure, Land Reform and the Qalad System in Ethiopia, 1941–1974,’ Journal of Asian and African Studies 46(6),(2016), pp.570; Gebre Wold Ingida Worq, ‘Ethiopia's traditional system of land tenure and taxation,’ Ethiopia Observer 5(4), (1962), pp.303,304,319; S.Gryziewicz, "The outline of the fiscal system in Ethiopia," Ethiopian Observer, 8(1),(1964), pp.293–94,298.
26 Andrzej Bartnicki and Joanna Mantel-Niećko, ‘The Role and Significance of the Religious Conflicts and People's Movements in the Political Life of Ethiopia in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,’ Rassegna di Studi Etiopici, Vol. 24 (1969-1970), p.18.
27 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ግብር 2467, File No መ/496/3881/60 A letter from Kefayalew Tamiru to Wogera awraja astedadaer tsefet bet, 1950EC.
28 Barbara Hendrie, "Now the People Are Like a Lord"- "Local Effects of Revolutionary Reform in a Tigray Village, Northern Ethiopia," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University College London, 1999), p.65; Ya Agar Gezat Masehet, 1st year No. 5(Tahesas 16, 1954 E.C), p. 13.
29 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ጠ 22, File No 55, A letter from Begemider and Semen TeqilayGizat administrative office to seven awraja’s administrative offices, 1964EC.
30 Ibid.; Personal interview with Wondimu Sibihat, Alemu Hailie, Alem Belay, Tirusew Kindu, Tewabech Amsalu,19 October 2020.
31 Richard Pankhurst, ‘Notes for a History of Ethiopian Agriculture,’ Ethiopia Observer(1),1963), pp.210–12; Bayleyegn Ayalew, "Realism in Sahle Sellassie Berhane Mariam's Warrior King and the Afersata," (Ma Thesis, Department of Foreign Literature, Addis Ababa University, 2009), pp.73–6; Haftom Tesfay, "Rural Land Dispute Settlement Mechanisms in Tigray: The Case of Humera," (MA Thesis, Department of Law, Addis Ababa University, 2011),p.1; Donald Levine, ‘The Promise of Ethiopia: Public Action; Civic Forgiveness; Creative Power,’ International Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2008), pp. 107–8.
32 Patricia Lundy and Mark McGovern, ‘Whose Justice? Rethinking Transitional Justice from the Bottom Up,’ Journal of Law and Society Vol. 35, No. 2 (Jun., 2008), p. 272; Allison Corey and Sandra F. Joireman, ‘Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda,’ African Affairs, Vol. 103, No. 410 (Jan., 2004), p. 74; John D. Holm and Emmanuel Botlhale, ‘Persistence and Decline of Traditional Authority in Modern Botswana Politics,’ Botswana Notes and Records, Vol. 40 (2008), pp. 75–7.
33 Fekadu Petros, "Underlying Distinctions Between Adr, Shimglina, And Arbitration: A Critical Analysis," Mizan Law Review Vol. 3 No.1, (2009),p.108.
34 Endalew Lijalem Enyew, ‘Ethiopian customary dispute resolution mechanisms: Forms of restorative justice?’(2010), pp136–37; Abera Jenberie, Ye Ethiopia Hig ena Ye fitih afetsatsem Tarik 1426–1966 EC(Addis Ababa: CMYK Media Private Limited, 2006EC), pp.344–45; Haile Muluken, "A History of Traditional and Modern Legal and Justice systems of Ethiopia c. 1900-1974,"(Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, Addis Ababa University, 2007), pp.7-9; Amiro Nigusé, Tintawi Yä Ityopia Yäsälam Tibeka Tarik. Addis Ababa: TimihrtMämiriya Madäraja Dirijit,(2000),p.45.
35 Abera, pp.344–45; Haile, pp.7-9; Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560, A letter from Kindu Hadgo governor kosoye vice district to Wogera awraja astedader tsefet bet, 1942EC.
36 Haile, pp.7-9.
37 Abera, pp.344–45; Zeneb (Aleka), Ye Tiwodros Tarik, Enno Littman, Publisher. Princeton: Princeton University(1902),p.22; Paulos Ngongo. Aste Tewodros II. Addis Ababa: Aster Nega Publishing Agency(1985),p.146.
38 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560, A Letter from elders who assigned to estimate the lost property of Mr. Chaine to Wogera woreda administrator, 1958EC.
39 Mahteme-Sellasie Welde-Mesqel, Zikre Neger. Addis Ababa:Netsanet Prenting press(1948),pp.92–4; Abera, pp.344–45.
40 Robert Sedler, ‘The Chilot Jurisdiction of the Emperor of Ethiopia: A Legal Analysis in Historical and Comparative Perspective,’ Journal of African Law, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Summer, 1964), pp. 66–8; Haile, pp.7-9.
41 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No 220 File No 18, A letter from Ye Mito Giyorgis sewoch to Begmider and Semen TeqilayGizat tsefet Bet, 1964 EC(See appendix 3).
42 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No 220 File No 18, A letter from Ye Gonder Adbarat mirt ena Fejewoch to qenazmach Bekele Zelelew, Begmider and Semen TeqilayGizat Director, 1958EC.
43 Ibid.
44 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560 A letter from fitawrarai Bekele Zelelew mikitel enderasie to Fitawrarai Zeleke Tiruneh, Semen awraja Gez,1965EC.
45 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560, A letter from Taye Mulaw to Fitawrarai Ferede Tiruneh, governor of Semen awraja, 1965EC.
46 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560, A letter from Dejazmach Abdruhoman Shek Abdie Minister Deta, to Begmider and Semen TeqilayGizat tsefet Bet, 1963EC.
47 N.G.A.Z.O, Folder No, ፍርድ ቤት 206, File No ፍ/560 A letter from Yager Gizat minster to Begmider and Semen TeqilayGizat Tsefet Bet, 1951EC.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Ayele Tariku
Ayele Tariku is an assistant professor in history at Bahir Dar university, faculty of social sciences, department of History, Ethiopia. He is a PhD student in the same institution. He is the author of the following articles: State and Society Relations from 1974 to 1991: A Case of South-western Ethiopia Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Cultur; The Annole Monument and Negus Menelik’s Expedition towards Arsi: A Bibliographic Essay in The Ethiopian Journal of Social Sciences, Vol 4, No 1; Inter-group conflicts in the horn of Africa: The case of Diz and Suri people, Ethiopia in Human Affairs 28 (2):130-140; Marriage and values of virginity in rural Dizi people, Southwest Ethiopia in Internet Journal Language, Culture and Society, Issue 41; State Formation and Dispute Resolution Mechanism in Ethiopia: A Case of Wolaitta People in ESJ Journal Vol 11, No 23; ‘’Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed’’ by Jared Diamond, New York: Viking, 2004, 526 pages (book review) in The Ethiopian Journal of Social Sciences, Vol 6, No 1.