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ABSTRACT
Algerian leadership was once instrumental in organising and fomenting jihad in North Africa and the Sahel. Alongside leadership decapitations, counter-terrorism crackdowns, and a ‘Sahelian shift’ following the influx of Sahelian members, Algerian influence has since significantly waned. Today, Algerian influence is mainly seen in cautionary tales against extremism and infighting. In contrast, few Algerian jihadists still play a role within the overall hierarchy of al-Qaeda's North African and Sahelian branches. As such, it is ultimately a new generation – a non-Algerian generation – that is leading the jihadist charge in northern Africa and the Sahel. However, although diminished, Algerian leadership remains persistently valuable to al-Qaeda’s senior leadership due to their strategic utilitarian view.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Jacob Zenn and Aaron Zelin for their discussions and input.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on contributor(s)
Sammie Wicks is a law enforcement officer focused on terrorism and targeted violence prevention. He is also an independent researcher focusing on transnational crime and violent social movements in North and West Africa, with a Master of Arts in International Security from the Josef Korbel School of International Studies at the University of Denver. Follow @Sammie_Wicks
Caleb Weiss is a senior analyst at the Bridgeway Foundation, where he focuses on the spread of the Islamic State in Central Africa, and a research analyst at Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD)’s Long War Journal, where he focuses on jihadism across the African continent. He is also a graduate of The Fletcher School at Tufts University. Follow @Weissenberg7
Notes
1 France 24, ‘French forces kill al Qaeda's North Africa chief in Mali, defence minister says’.
2 Alonso, ‘Comment l'armée française a mené son raid contre le chef d'Aqmi’..
3 Roger and Alilat, ‘How AQIM leader Abdelmalek Droukdel was killed in Mali’.
4 Weiss, ‘AQIM confirms leader’s death’.
5 Filiu, ‘The Local and Global Jihad of al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghrib’, 213–226.
6 Filiu, ‘Could Al-Qaeda Turn African in the Sahel?,’
7 Ibid.
8 Thurston, ‘Algeria’s GIA: The First Major Armed Group to Fully Subordinate Jihadism to Salafism’, 412–436.
9 Porter, ‘AQIM Pleads for Relevance in Algeria’.
10 Ibid.
11 Skretting, ‘Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghrib’s Expansion in the Sahara: New Insights from Primary Sources’.
12 Ibid.
13 Zenn, Unmasking Boko Haram: Exploring Global Jihad in Nigeria.
14 Zenn, pgs. 30; 187-189.
15 Zeraoulia, ‘The Memory of the Civil War in Algeria: Lessons from the Past with Reference to the Algerian Hirak’.
16 Botha, ‘Terrorism in the Maghreb: The Transnationalisation of Domestic Terrorism’.
17 Ibid.
18 United Nations Security Council, ‘Libyan Islamic Fighting Group’.
19 Black, ‘The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group – from al-Qaida to the Arab spring’.
20 See, for example, the LIFG’s June 1996 statement justifying its participation in the fighting in Algeria. ‘Statement from the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group Regarding the Jihad in Algeria,’ June 6, 1996. Available at Jihadology: https://jihadology.net/1996/06/06/statement-from-the-libyan-islamic-fighting-group-regarding-the-jihad-in-algeria/.
21 Tawil,Brothers in Arms: The Story of al-Qa’ida and the Arab Jihadists,pg. 55.
22 Ibid.
23 Tawil (2010), pg. 86.
24 See a booklet published by AQIM on this subject: Hisham Abu Akram, ‘In Memory of the Martyrs of the Sons of Libya in the Land of Algeria: Stories of the Libyans Who Were Martyred by the Armed Islamic Group’. Ifriqiya al-Muslima, 2016. https://jihadology.net/2016/06/06/new-release-from-abu-akram-hisham-messages-from-the-mujahids-notebook-3-scattering-of-the-gems-in-memory-of-the-martyr-from-the-sons-of-libya-in-algeria/.
25 The LIFG eventually released a statement denouncing the GIA and its massacres and accusing the group of being hypocrites. See: ‘Remnants of the GIA: Shovels for the Demolition of this Religion’, Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, October 1, 1997. Available at Jihadology: https://jihadology.net/1997/10/01/statement-from-the-libyan-islamic-fighting-group-remnants-of-the-gia-shovels-for-the-demolition-of-this-religion/.
26 Zelin,Your Sons Are at Your Service: Tunisia’s Missionaries of Jihad,pg. 47.
27 US Department of State, ‘1995 Patterns of Global Terrorism’.
28 Ibid.
29 Zelin (2020), pg. 48.
30 Botha (2008), op. cit.
31 See: ‘The Group’s Mercy,’ Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, September 16, 1998. Available at Jihadology: https://jihadology.net/1998/09/16/new-statement-from-al-jamaah-al-salafiyyah-li-l-dawah-wa-l-qital-the-groups-mercy/.
32 US Department of State. ‘Country Reports on Terrorism 2005.’ https://www.refworld.org/docid/468108105.html.
33 US Department of State. ‘Country Reports on Terrorism 2006.’ https://www.refworld.org/docid/4681084b23.html.
34 Essevir. ‘Salafi File: 8 Freed on Temporary Release and Ould al-Samman appears before the criminal chamber.’ October 15, 2016. http://essevir.info/node/1978?fbclid=IwAR1s22ec7nx_TwMAP2vLAdRfboF8_D4OF10g3zNYiG0ME9jxJXxKiXjVtw4.
35 Andre Le Sage. ‘The Evolving Threat of al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb.’ Institute for National Strategic Studies, July 2011. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/134649/SF%20268%20Le%20Sage.pdf.
36 John Davis. Terrorism in Africa: The Evolving Front in the War on Terror. Lexington Books, 2010. pg. 145.
37 Hassane Kone. ‘How has Mauritania managed to stave off terror attacks?’ Institute for Security Studies, December 6, 2019. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/how-has-mauritania-managed-to-stave-off-terror-attacks.
38 Anouar Boukhars. ‘Mauritania’s Precarious Stability and Islamist Undercurrent.’ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 2016. pgs. 9-11. https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CEIP_CP266_Boukhars_Final.pdf.
39 Hisham Abu Akram. ‘Shaykh Usama and the Story of His Support for the Algerian Jihad.’ Ifriqiya al-Muslama, 2016. https://jihadology.net/2016/03/25/new-release-from-abu-akram-hisham-messages-from-the-mujahids-notebook-shaykh-usamah-and-the-story-of-his-support-for-the-algerian-jihad/; Qutaybah Abu Numan. ‘From the Archives of Shaykh Abu al-Hassan al-Bulaydi: Shari’a Advice and Guidance for the Mujahideen of Nigeria.’ Al-Andalus Media, April 2017. https://jihadology.net/2017/04/28/new-release-from-the-archives-of-al-qaidah-in-the-islamic-maghribs-shaykh-abu-al-%e1%b8%a5asan-rashid-shariah-advice-and-guidance-for-the-mujahidin-of-nigeria/.
40 Al-Jama'a Magazine. ‘A Discussion With the Commander Khaled Abu al-Abbas.’ May 2006. http://thelineofsteel.weebly.com/sahelian-jihad/translation-of-a-may-2006-interview-of-mokhtar-belmokhtar.
41 Morten Boas. ‘Guns, Money and Prayers: AQIM’s Blueprint for Securing Control of Northern Mali.’ CTC Sentinel. Vol. 7. Is. 4. April 2014. https://ctc.usma.edu/guns-money-and-prayers-aqims-blueprint-for-securing-control-of-northern-mali/.
42 Al-Jama'a Magazine (2006). op. cit.
43 Jacob Zenn (2020), op. cit, pgs. 29-34.
44 Ibid.
45 Rukmini Callimachi. ‘Anatomy of an Abduction.’ The New York Times, July 29, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/30/world/africa/militant-kidnapping-video.html. ; Franklin Charles Graham IV. ‘Abductions, kidnappings and killings in the Sahel and Sahara.’ Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 38, No. 130, Dec. 2011. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23145864.
46 Ibid.
47 Al-Risalah Magazine. ‘Exclusive Interview with Shaykh al-Mujahid Hisham Abu Akram,’ January 13, 2017. URL: https://jihadology.net/2017/01/13/new-release-from-al-risalah-media-exclusive-interview-with-al-qaidah-in-the-islamic-maghribs-shaykh-hisham-abu-akram/.
48 Jason Warner, Ellen Chapin, and Caleb Weiss. ‘Desert Drift, Declining Deadliness: Understanding the Evolution of AQIM’s Suicide Bombings.’ Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, October 2020. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Desert-Drift-Declining-Deadliness.pdf.
49 Ibid.
50 Skretting (2020), op. cit.
51 Rachid Tlemçani. ‘Algeria Under Bouteflika: Civil Strife and National Reconciliation.’ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 2008. URL: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/cmec7_tlemcani_algeria_final.pdf.
52 Ibid.
53 Warner, Chapin, and Weiss (2020), pg. 23.
54 Ibid.
55 Warner, Chapin, and Weiss (2020), pg. 24.
56 Porter (2019), op. cit.
57 Oded Berkowitz. ‘#Algeria- unlike most of us, the ANP had a pretty good year in 2020: … ’ Twitter, January 3, 2021. URL: https://twitter.com/Oded121351/status/1345639102042025985.
58 Inspire Magazine. ‘Inspire Interview: Sheikh Abu Mus’ab Abdul Wadood.’ Al-Malahem Media. Is. 17. Summer 2017. p. 36.
59 Warner, Chapin, and Weiss (2020), pg. 24.
60 Filiu, Jean-Pierre. "The fractured jihadi movement in the Sahara." Current Trends in Islamist Ideology, vol. 16, Mar. 2014, pp. 86+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A367076843/AONE?u=anon∼2406107f&sid=googleScholar&xid=7940395e. Accessed 8 Oct. 2021.
61 BBC News. ‘Mokhtar Belmokhtar: Top Islamist 'killed' in US strike.’ June 15, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-33129838; Ibrahim Ahmed. ‘Wanted Terrorist Mokhtar Belmokhtar Said to Still Be Alive.’ Voice of America, June 19, 2018. https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/wanted-terrorist-mokhtar-belmokhtar-said-still-be-alive.
62 Caleb Weiss. ‘French military claims senior JNIM leader killed.’ FDD’s Long War Journal. February 22, 2019. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2019/02/french-military-claims-senior-jnim-leader-killed.php.
63 Ibid.
64 France 24 (2020), op. cit.
65 Skretting (2020), op. cit.
66 Ibid.
67 Warner, Chapin, and Weiss (2020), pg. 25.
68 Sarah Diffalah. ‘MALI. "Al-Targui s'est distingué par des actions sanguinaires.’ L’Obs, November 7, 2013. https://www.nouvelobs.com/monde/guerre-au-mali/20131107.OBS4539/mali-al-targui-s-est-distingue-par-des-actions-sanguinaires.html.
69 Adam Arroudj. ‘Sahel: la reddition d'un chef d'Aqmi affaiblit les djihadistes.’ Le Figaro, August 19, 2018. https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2018/08/19/01003-20180819ARTFIG00142-sahel-la-reddition-d-un-chef-d-aqmi-affaiblit-les-djihadistes.php.
70 Jessica M. Huckabey. ‘Al Qaeda in Mali: The Defection Connections.’ Foreign Policy Research Institute, Summer 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.orbis.2013.05.008.
71 Thomas Joscelyn. ‘Confusion surrounds West African jihadists’ loyalty to Islamic State.’ FDD’s Long War Journal, May 14, 2015. URL: https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/05/confusion-surrounds-west-african-jihadists-loyalty-to-islamic-state.php.
72 Ibid.
73 Thomas Joscelyn. ‘Analysis: Al Qaeda groups reorganise in West Africa.’ FDD’s Long War Journal, March 13, 2017. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/03/analysis-al-qaeda-groups-reorganise-in-west-africa.php
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid.
76 United Nations Security Council. ‘Final report of the Panel of Experts established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2374 (2017) on Mali and renewed pursuant to resolution 2484 (2019).’ August 13, 2020. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/S_2020_785.pdf; David Bache, Marie-Pierre Olphand, and Pierre Firtion. ‘Assassinat de G. Dupont et C. Verlon: Seidane Ag Hitta, l’ascension du présumé commanditaire.’ RFI, November 2, 2020. https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20201102-mali-kidal-assassinat-ghislaine-dupont-claude-verlon-journalists-rfi-seidane-ag-hit?ref=tw_i.
77 Célia Lebur. "Worried Togo finds itself on the front line of Sahel's jihadist war." Agence France Presse, May 20, 2020. https://www.yahoo.com/now/worried-togo-finds-itself-front-line-sahels-jihadist-013641079.html;The Economist. ‘Jihadists in the Sahel threaten west Africa’s coastal states.’ July 11, 2020. https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/07/09/jihadists-in-the-sahel-threaten-west-africas-coastal-states.
78 Caleb Weiss. ‘AQIM, via Thabat News, claimed the ambush in Ain Defla #Algeria today that killed one soldier.’ Twitter, June 21, 2020. https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/1274794654928691200.
79 Uthman Lihayani. "Algerian Army announces the death of two prominent commanders in al-Qaeda." Al-Quds al-Arabi, December 2, 2020. https://tinyurl.com/4rjvcg4q.
80 Jackson, Brian A., John C. Baker, Peter Chalk, Kim Cragin, John V. Parachini, and Horacio R. Trujillo, Aptitude for Destruction, Volume 2: Case Studies of Organisational Learning in Five Terrorist Groups. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2005. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG332.html.
81 Ibid.
82 Ibid.
83 Sahdra, Baljinder, and Michael Ross. ‘Group Identification and Historical Memory.’ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33, no. 3 (March 2007): 384–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206296103.
84 Beck, Colin J. ‘The Contribution of Social Movement Theory to Understanding Terrorism.’ Sociology Compass 2, no. 5 (2008): 1565–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00148.x.
85 Diani, Mario. ‘The Concept of Social Movement.’ The Sociological Review 40, no. 1 (1992): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954x.1992.tb02943.x.
86 Coleman and Demuynck, ‘The Death of Droukdel: Implications for AQIM and the Sahel’.
87 Nasr, ‘Implications of Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb's New Leadership’.
88 Valerie Crova. ‘Djihadisme : Pourquoi La Mort D'Abdelmalek Droukdel, Le Chef D'Aqmi, Est Une Étape Importante.’ France Inter. France Inter, June 6, 2020. https://www.franceinter.fr/monde/djihadisme-pourquoi-la-mort-d-abdelmalek-droukdel-le-chef-d-aqmi-est-une-etape-importante.
89 Wassim Nasr. ‘#Mali la DGSE dévoile un montage d’une vidéo « tournée par une source humaine lors d’une réunion entre Iyad Ag Ghali … ’ Twitter, February 2, 2021. https://twitter.com/SimNasr/status/1356693696926937088.
90 Ibid.
91 Coleman and Demuynck (2020), op. cit.
92 Siegel, ‘AQIM's Playbook in Mali’.
93 Thurston, ‘Who Is AQIM’s New Emir, Yusuf al-‘Annabi?’. ; Allouche, ‘Al-Qaeda's Maghreb branch has revealed its weakness with new leadership’.
94 Serrano, Winer, and Ghanem, ‘The Last Emir?: AQIM's Decline in the Sahel.
95 Qutaybah Abu Numan has been identified by both the group and its supporters as JNIM's top Islamic judge, or Qadi.
96 Kharief, ‘Qui Est Le Nouveau Chef D'Aqmi, Abou Obeida Yousouf Al-Annabi ? – Jeune Afrique’.
97 Ibid.
98 See: Abu Ubaidah. ‘A Message to our People in Syria: With the Edge of the Sword, Syria Will Be Liberated’.
99 Lebovich,‘The Local Face of Jihadism in Northern Mali’.
100 Rice, ‘Timbuktu: the Day the Islamists Came to Town’. ; Boeke, ‘Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb: Terrorism, insurgency, or organised crime?, 5.
101 For instance, see: Joscelyn, ‘Zawahiri eulogizes al Qaeda’s slain Syrian representative.
102 Joscelyn, ‘Ayman Al Zawahiri Honors 2 Slain Jihadis in New Video’.
103 Qutaybah Abu Numan (2017), op. Cit.
104 Weiss, ‘JNIM portrays its fight as part of Al Qaeda’s global jihad’.
105 Ibid.
106 For instance, in 2014, Abu Mariyyah al-Qahtani, a senior leader and religious official within Jabhat al-Nusrah, then al-Qaeda’s official branch in Syria, wrote a treatise against the Islamic State using the GIA as an analogous example. See: Abu Mariyyah al-Qahtani, ‘The Ummah Between the Zuabri of al-Sham and Zuabri of Algeria,’ July 21, 2014. Available on Jihadology: https://jihadology.net/2014/07/21/new-article-from-jabhat-al-nu%e1%b9%a3rahs-abu-mariyyah-al-qa%e1%b8%a5%e1%b9%adani-the-ummah-between-zuabri-of-al-sham-and-zuabri-of-algeria/