Chronic stress predicts post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms via executive function deficits among urban American Indian children

Abstract

Little is known about how chronic exposure to stress affects mental health among American Indian (AI) children. The current study aimed to fill this gap by exploring if hair cortisol concentration (HCC), an indicator of chronic stress, predicted post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms through deficits in executive function (EF) skills commonly referred to as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. A total of 163 urban AI children between 8- and 15-years old participated in the study (92 girls, 56.4%; M_age = 11.19, SD = 1.98). Chronic stress was measured as the concentration of cortisol in children’s hair. EF deficits and PTSD symptoms were reported by primary caregivers using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children. The results demonstrated that higher HCC was indirectly associated with more PTSD symptoms through deficits in EF skills. Specifically, higher levels of HCC were related to more symptoms of PTSD arousal through impaired working memory, and more symptoms of PTSD avoidance and Intrusion through deficits in cognitive flexibility. The findings suggest interventions that reduce or buffer chronic stress, or that focus on improving EF skills, may promote not only cognitive development but also the mental health of AI children.

Keywords:

• Chronic stress
• hair cortisol concentration
• executive function
• post-traumatic stress disorder
• American Indian

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr Mark Laudenslager for his guidance and dedicate this paper to his memory.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 We use the term Indigenous to refer to First Nation, Aborigine, Maori, American Indian and all culturally distinct ethnic groups who are the rightful inhabitants of a land which has been colonized and settled by another group.

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by the William T Grant Foundation and the Native Children’s Research Exchange Scholars Program with funding provided to Monica Tsethlikai.