https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5308-2423
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ABSTRACT
Objectives: Removing artificial food coloring (AFC) is a common dietary intervention for children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but has not been tested in young adults. This pilot study examined the effects of AFC on ADHD symptoms and electroencephalography (EEG) in college students with and without ADHD.
Methods: At baseline, control and ADHD participants completed the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS), simple and complex attention measures, and resting-state EEG recordings. ADHD participants (n = 18) and a subset of controls (extended control group or EC, n = 11) avoided AFC in their diet for 2 weeks and then were randomized to a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover challenge. Subjects received either 225 mg AFC disguised in chocolate cookies or placebo chocolate cookies for 3 days each week, with testing on the third day each week. Baseline comparisons were made using Student’s t-test or Wilcoxon rank sum tests and challenge period analyses were run using General Linear Modeling.
Results: The ADHD group had significantly greater scores on the ASRS (p < 0.001), confirming a symptom differential between groups; however, there were no differences in attentional measures or EEG at baseline. The AFC challenge resulted in an increase in posterior mean gamma power (p = 0.05), a decrease in posterior relative alpha power (p = 0.04), and a marginal increase in inattentive symptoms (p = 0.08) in the ADHD group. There were no effects of AFC in the EC group.
Discussion: This study indicates that AFC exposure may affect brainwave activity and ADHD symptoms in college students with ADHD. Larger studies are needed to confirm these findings.
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Correction Statement
This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
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Notes on contributors
Anna E. Kirkland
Anna E. Kirkland are part of the Nutritional Neuroscience Lab at American University, which studies the negative effects of food additives on glutamatergic neurotransmission, as well as the protective effects of certain micronutrients against excitotoxicity, with the aim of optimizing neurological function through dietary treatment.
Mackenzie T. Langan
Mackenzie T. Langan are part of the Nutritional Neuroscience Lab at American University, which studies the negative effects of food additives on glutamatergic neurotransmission, as well as the protective effects of certain micronutrients against excitotoxicity, with the aim of optimizing neurological function through dietary treatment.
Kathleen F. Holton
Kathleen F. Holton are part of the Nutritional Neuroscience Lab at American University, which studies the negative effects of food additives on glutamatergic neurotransmission, as well as the protective effects of certain micronutrients against excitotoxicity, with the aim of optimizing neurological function through dietary treatment.