The manufacture of hope: religion, eschatology and the culture of optimism

Abstract

This article builds on earlier research, which concludes that societies cannot sustain themselves without cultures of optimism. These cultures are reproduced by a complex of ‘optimism promoters’, all of which can be seen to be engaged in a kind of unstated or ‘implicit’ cultural policy, with the production of optimism as one of its goals. The institution of religion is part of this complex. Its role in the production of optimism is the focus of this article, with particular reference to soteriology (theories of salvation) and eschatology. From a ‘detached’ and ‘functionalist’ perspective, it analyses how religions manufacture hope through (1) the production of meaning, (2) their models of divine justice and (3) theories of ultimate destiny. These matters are discussed in relation to Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. The article concludes that the optimisms of religion are of a quite different order from those promoted by other institutions.

Keywords:

• religion
• optimism
• implicit
• cultural policy
• eschatology
• soteriology

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on the first draft of this article. I would also like to thank all those who commented on an earlier paper on this subject that I presented at the ‘Religion and Cultural Policy’ workshop, hosted by the Centre for Cultural Policy Studies at the University of Warwick in April, 2010.

Notes

1. This phrase was first coined by Lionel Tiger in The Biology of Hope (Tiger 1995, p. xxi).

2. For an extensive exploration of this, see Bennett (forthcoming).

3. As Gillham et al. have pointed out, optimism can be seen as a stronger version of hope, with which it is often used interchangeably (2000, p. 62).

4. ‘Catallaxy’ is the term used by the Austrian economist, Friedich von Hayek, to describe ‘the order brought about by the mutual adjustment of many individual economies in a market’ (Hayek 1976, pp. 108–109).

5. The Bhagavad Gita is a small excerpt from The Mahabharata, one of the two major Sanskrit epics of India, composed between 500 BCE and 500 CE.

6. In Mahayanam Buddhism, this goal is deferred through the ‘Bodhisattva vow’, whereby final release (nirvana) is delayed until it has been achieved by all other beings (Coward 2003, p. 151).

7. Buddha considered the Hindu concept of a permanently existing self (atman) to be a delusion and countered it with the idea of anatman or ‘no‐self’. The anatman however was still subject to the laws of karma and samsara (Coward 2003, pp. 139–144).

8. See Thompson (1996) for an extensive account of apocalyptic cults.

9. Muhammed’s eschatology also involves a physical resurrection of the dead. Since there is no evidence of such beliefs in pre‐Islamic Arabia, the idea was almost certainly derived from Judaism or Christianity (Brandon 1967, p. 143).

10. It should be noted here that, at the level of lived experience, fear of damnation can outweigh the hope of salvation and result more in pessimism than optimism. In extreme cases, a religion‐induced preoccupation with sin and guilt can lead to psychiatric disorders that require professional treatment (see Rachman 2003; Bhugra and Bhui 2007).

11. Although there are major theological differences between Islam, Judaism and Christianity, Jews and Christians are accepted as believers in The Koran, since Moses and Jesus are acknowledged as authentic prophets.

12. John has own ministry, known as the Philo Trust, which aims to ‘show how faith in Jesus Christ is not only reasonable but also relevant and vitally important’. According to the Trust’s website, John has to date completed thousands of speaking engagements in 54 countries on six continents. He is said to have authored over 50 titles and to have over a million copies of his books in print in thirteen languages (Philo Trust 2010).

13. See, for example, the so‐called parable of the ‘sheep and goats’ in Matt. 25:31–46 and, alternatively, the reference to God’s universalist intentions in Ephesians 1:10 (The New English Bible, 1961).

14. For a useful introduction to this (see Coward 2003, pp. 104–123, 141–160). Coward focuses on the four main Hindu pathways (marga) to moksa, as set out in The Bhagavad Gita: knowledge (jnana marga), action (karma marga), devotion (bhakti marga) and self‐discipline (yoga marga). Paths to enlightenment within Buddhism are discussed in relation to the two major sects of Therevada and Mahayana.

15. The Buddha, like Jesus Christ, wrote nothing himself and his teachings were not recorded in written form until hundreds of years after his death in around 483 BC.

16. See I Corinthians 13:12 (The New English Bible, 1961).

17. Although originating from the Evangelical Anglican tradition, Alpha now attracts support across all the major denominations for its introductory programmes in Christianity. Starting in London in the late 1970s, it expanded rapidly in the 1990s and now reports that 15 million people worldwide have attended over 33,500 courses in 163 countries (Alpha 2010).

18. This of course explains the many varieties of eschatological narrative within and across different religions, including contrasting patterns of inclusion/exclusion. Subsequent theological elaborations can no doubt also be related to the historical circumstances in which they were produced. However, this is a larger topic that is beyond the scope of this article.