Monstrosity and the Judgment of Architecture in Seicento and Settecento Rome

Abstract

When Gian Lorenzo Bernini's Baldacchino first surmounted the altar of Saint Peter's Basilica in 1624, it divided public opinion. Amongst its criticism was the insult that the Baldacchino “was a chimera”, quoted from Vincenzo Berti and added to Fioravente Martinelli's manuscript Roma Ornata dall'Architettura, Pittura e Scultura (Rome Ornamented by Architecture, Painting and Sculpture; 1660–63) by Francesco Borromini. This article analyses the context in which this criticism was made, and the significance of the chimera for Martinelli's audience. The prevalent attributes of the chimera are then aligned with currents of Seicento, and earlier, architectural theory and discourse concerned with value judgments of architecture. This literature, while adamant in its support of architectural merit, is frequently indeterminate with regards to how this may be achieved. Identification of the similarities between the figure of the chimera in Seicento thought and architectural principles allows greater comprehension of how architecture was received, and theorised, in early modern Rome. Thus the connotations of the chimera provide a qualitative framework for discerning the ideals against which architectural merit was judged in Seicento and Settecento Rome.

Notes

^1. “Applauso ne ricevesse l'Artefice da Roma…” Domenico Bernini, Vita del Cavalier Gian Lorenzo Bernini (Rome: Rocco Bernabò, 1713; repr., Füssen: Mäander, 1988), 41. Citations are to the Mäander edition. This, and all subsequent translations (excluding those of Aristotle's Poetics) are my own. To avoid confusion, Domenico Bernini will be referred to as “D. Bernini” and Gian Lorenzo Bernini as “Bernini”.

^2. For opposition to the Baldacchino, see in particular Giovan Pietro Bellori, Le Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori e Architetti Moderni (Rome: Accademia di Francia,1672; repr., Turin: Piccola Biblioteca Einaudi Classici, 2009), 290, citations are to the Piccola Biblioteca Einaudi Classici edition; and Giambattista Passeri, Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti che Anno [sic] Lavorato in Roma Morti dal 1641 Fino al 1673 (Rome: Stamperia di Giovanni Zempel Presso Monte Giordano, 1772 [manuscript written 1673]; repr., Bologna: Arnaldo Forni Editore, 1976), 384. Citations are to the Arnaldo Forni Editore edition.

^3. These are discussed at length in T. A. Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture (New York: Abbeville Press, 1998), 29–38.

^4. This connection is made most explicitly in Lione Pascoli, Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori e Architetti Moderni. Volume Primo (Rome: Antonio de’ Rossi, 1730 and 1736; repr., Amsterdam: Bueckhandel and Antiquariat, 1965), 300–301. Citations are to the Bueckhandel and Antiquariat edition.

^5. For an overview of these concerns, see Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 29–38.

^6. “Era una chimera.” Francesco Borromini, in Fioravente Martinelli, “Roma Ornata dell'Architettura, Pittura e Scultura,” 1660–63, MS 4984, Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome, p. 201. This quote is often referred to in the secondary literature when discussing the circumstances of the Baldacchino. Linguistic and contextual study of its significance, however, is rarely entered into. See Cesare d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento (Florence: Vallecchi Editore, 1969), 158; Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 32; William Tronzo, Saint Peter's in the Vatican (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 233n17.

^7. This text was never published. However Martinelli wrote it with future publication in mind, as it is essentially an extended version of his earlier guidebook Roma Ricercata. This validates the text's use. d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento, viii.

^8. For secondary discussion of this issue, see Sarah McPhee, Bernini and the Bell Towers: Architecture and Politics at the Vatican (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), passim.

^9. See paraphrasing of Borromini's criticism by Passeri, Vite de’ Pittori, 384; its quoting in D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 77; and relation of this to the adverse public reaction in Filippo Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere Gio. Lorenzo Bernino Scultore, Architetto, e Pittore,” in Francesco Saverio, ed., Vita di Gian Lorenzo Bernini Scritta da Filippo Baldinucci con l'Inedita Vita di Baldinucci Scritta dal Figlio Francesco Saverio (Florence: Stamperia di Vincenzio Vangelisti, 1682; repr., Milan: Edizioni del Milione, 1948), 96–97. Citations are to the Edizioni del Milione edition.

^10. The significance of public reception of art, and the surrounding debates, for our understanding of early modern Italian art has recently been highlighted in Pamela M. Jones, Altarpieces and their Viewers in the Churches of Rome from Caravaggio to Guido Reni (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008).

^11. For the role of avvisi, see Mario Infelise, “Roman avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century,” in Gianvittorio Signorotto and Maria Antonietta Visceglia, eds., Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700 (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 213–14; for that of guidebooks see Peter Murray, Five Early Guides to Rome and Florence (Bergstrasse: Gregg International Publishers, 1972), 1–3; for that of biographies see Hans Raben, “Bellori's Art: The Taste and Distaste of a Seventeenth-Century Art Critic in Rome,” Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 32, no. 2/3 (2006), 126; for that of prints see Clemente Marigliani, “Lo ‘Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae’ e i Viaggiatori del Cinquecento,” in Marina Formica, ed., Roma e la Campagna Romana nel Grand Tour (Bari: Editori Laterza, 2009), 85–86; and for papal building programmes see Helge Gamrath, Roma Sancta Renovata: Studi sull’ Urbanistica di Roma nella Seconda Metà del Sec. XVI con Particolare Riferimento al Pontificato di Sisto V (1585–1590) (Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider, 1987), 11–44.

^12. See Michael Hill, “Introduction to Domenico Bernini Vita del Cavalier Gian Lorenzo Bernini” (unpublished, 2007), n.p. With grateful thanks to Michael Hill for allowing his introduction's use for this paper; McPhee, Bernini and the Bell Towers, 176; Maarten Delbeke, “Prologomena to the Interdisciplinary Study of Bernini's Biographies,” in Maarten Delbeke, Steven Ostrow and Evonne Levy, eds., Bernini's Biographies. Critical Essays, (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 56; and Tomaso Montanari, “At the Margins of the Historiography of Art: The Vite of Bernini between Autobiography and Apologia,” in Maarten Delbeke, Steven Ostrow and Evonne Levy, eds., Bernini's Biographies. Critical Essays (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 73–104 passim; Bellori, Le Vite, 5–9.

^13. Bellori, Le Vite, 6.

^14. Giorgio Vasari, Le Vite de’ Più Eccellenti Architetti, Pittori et Scultori Italiani (Florence: Torrentino, 1550; expanded edition Florence: Giunti, 1568; repr., Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 1986).

^15. Baldinucci, Bellori, D. Bernini, Pascoli and Passeri are referenced in above footnotes. Giovanni Baglione, Le Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori e Architetti. Dal Pontificato di Gregorio XIII Fino a’ Tutto Quello d'Urbano Ottavo. Le Quali Seguitano Le Vite, che Fece Giorgio Vasari (Rome: Manelso Manelsi, 1649 [2nd ed.]; repr., Bologna: Arnaldo Forni Editore, 1975). Citations are to the Arnaldo Forni Editore edition.

^16. “Seguitano Le Vite, che Fece Giorgio Vasari.”

^17. Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” 96; and Delbeke, “Prologomena,” 27.

^18. “[I] contrari del Bernini…” Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” 96.

^19. For those preferring Bernini, see Baglione, Le Vite, 306; Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” 99–100; and D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, 80. For those preferring Borromini, see Passeri, Vite, 384; and Pascoli, Vite, 1730, 300. Bellori does not like either Bernini or Borromini. See Evelina Borea, “Noti,” in Giovan Pietro Bellori, Le vite de’ pittori, scultori e architetti moderni (Turin: Piccola Biblioteca Einaudi Classici, 2009), 6n3.

^20. See in particular that of Passeri against Bernini. Passeri, Vite, 299–300.

^21. Vasari, Le Vite, passim; and Rona Goffen, Renaissance Rivals: Michelangelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Titian (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 172–73.

^22. Pascoli, Vite, 298–99.

^23. “Miracolosa…” D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, 40; Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” 81; and “nobil baldacchino…” Baglione, Le Vite, 179. See Hill, “Introduction,” n.p; and Maarten Delbeke, “Gianlorenzo Bernini's Bel Composto: The Unification of Life and Work in Biography and Historiography,” in Maarten Delbeke, Steven Ostrow and Evonne Levy, eds., Bernini's Biographies. Critical Essays. (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 257; and Delbeke, “Gianlorenzo Bernini's Bel Composto,” 264.

^24. Bellori, Le Vite, 290. See Hill, “Introduction,” n.p; Steven F. Ostrow, “Bernini's Voice: From Chantelou's Journal to the Vite,” in Maarten Delbeke, Steven Ostrow and Evonne Levy, eds., Bernini's Biographies. Critical Essays (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 131; and Borea, “Noti,” 290n3.

^25. “Corruaione dell'età nostra”. Bellori, Le Vite, 6.

^26. Hill, “Introduction,” n.p.; Ostrow, “Bernini's Voice,” 131; and Borea, “Noti,” 6n3.

^27. Bellori, Le Vite, 6.

^28. Bellori, Le Vite, 6.

^29. “La novità…”. Bellori, Le Vite, 23. For another use of the term, also expressing both “novelty” and “newness,” see D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, 61.

^30. Bellori, Le Vite, 23.

^31. “Si avvide dell'abilità di Francesco… nell'intelligenza dell'Architettura; lo procurò suo aderente, e se ne valesse in tutte le occasioni di fabbriche, che intraprese nel Pontificato d'Urbano.” Passeri, Vite, 383.

^32. Bellori, Le Vite, 6. Intertexts between Seicento biographies and guidebooks are noted in Hill, “Introduction,” n.p.

^33. “Il libro che accompagna l'erudito o il curioso…” Gugliemo Matthiae, “Introduzione,” in Gugliemo Matthiae, ed., Roma del Settecento (Rome: Editrice Golem, 1970), 7. See also Hill, “Introduction,” n.p. For the literary culture with which D. Bernini and other writers engaged, see Delbeke, “Prologomena,” 32–39.

^34. See Martinelli, Roma Ornata dell'Architettura, Pittura e Scultura, 1660–1663, MS 4984, Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome, 331; and Martinelli, Roma Ornata, 152.

^35. d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento, viii–ix.

^36. Borromini makes only the one reference to him, and he does not appear in the biographies. See Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^37. See d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento, viii.

^38. Fioravente Martinelli, Roma Ricercata nel suo Sito, e nella Scuola degli Antiquarij (Padua: Paolo Frambotto, 1650), 13.

^39. See McPhee, Bernini and the Bell Towers, passim.

^40. d'Onofrio notes in his observations of the manuscript that the passage in which the chimera insult is included is in a different hand, which d'Onofrio identifies as being that of Borromini. See d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento, 158; and Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 31. Upon personal examination of the manuscript in Rome in late 2011, and comparison of it with the annotations made by Borromini in elevations currently held in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, this was found to be true.

^41. d'Onofrio, Roma nel Seicento, 158; Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 31.

^42. The Iconologia was first published in a text-only format in 1593 in Rome. Illustrated by Cavalier d'Arpino in 1603; expanded 1611 (edition referred to in this paper); polyglot edition Perugia 1764–77; two English editions 1777–79 and 1785. Stephen Orgel, “Preface,” in Stephen Orgel, ed., Iconologia (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), n.p. Mundus Symbolicus was first published in 1669 in Italian; expanded Latin edition edited by August Erath 1694, and published H. Demen, Cologne (edition referred to in this paper). Stephen Orgel, “Notes,” in Stephen Orgel, ed., Mundus Symbolicus (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), n.p.

^43. Symbolicarum Quaestionum de Universo Genere was first published in 1555 in Bologna; reprinted with retouched engravings 1574. Stephen Orgel, “Notes,” in Stephen Orgel, ed., Symbolicarum quaestionum de universo genere (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1979), n.p. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili was first published in Venice by Aldus Manutius, 1499; re-edited and reprinted by Aldus’ sons 1545; French edition Jacques Lefaivre, Paris 1546, 1554, 1561 and 1600; English edition Simon Waterson, London 1592. The text continued to be consulted in Seicento Italy, however it had lost some of its popularity by the Settecento. Liane Lefaivre, Leon Battista Alberti's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili: Re-Cognizing the Architectural Body in the Early Italian Renaissance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997), 10–33.

^44. La Genealogia de gli Dei was first published in the mid-fourteenth century, and repeatedly in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The 1569 edition, published in Venice by Giacomo Sansovino, is referred to in this paper. See Sarah McPhee, “Bernini's Books,” The Burlington Magazine 142, no. 1168 (2000), 445. Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico was first published in Turin by Giovanni Sanibaldo in 1654. The 1654 Giovanni Sanibaldo edition (Turin) is principally used in this paper. However there are some variances in the 1663 Presso Paolo Baglioni second edition (Venice), and in the1669 Paolo Baglioni (Venice) reprint of the second edition. These will be referred to separately when these variations are relevant. With grateful thanks to Michael Hill for his suggestion of Tesauro's text.

^45. James V Mirollo, The Poet of the Marvellous. Giambattista Marino (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 117, 166.

^46. McPhee, “Bernini's Books,” 445.

^47. Filippo Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, vol. 1 (Venice, 1694; repr., New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), n.p. Citations are to the Garland Publishing edition.

^48. See note 44.

^49. Boccaccio, La Genealogia de gli Dei (1360; repr., Venice: Appresso Giacomo Sansovino, 1569), 67, citations are to the Appresso Giacomo Sansovino edition; Cesare Ripa, Iconologia, (Rome, 1611; repr., New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 364, citations are to the Garland Publishing edition; Ripa, Iconologia, 539–40; Emanuele Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico (Turin: Giovanni Sanibaldo, 1654), 119; and Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, 152–53. For the classical representation of the chimera in the sources referred to by Ripa, Boccacio and Picinelli, see Homer, Iliad, A. T. Murray trans, revised William F. Wyatt, (c.750 bce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 2003), 6.178–183, 286, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; Titus Lucretius Carus (Lucretius), De Rerum Natura (c.94–55/51 bce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 1962), 5.878–923, 446–450, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil), “Aeneid,” in G. P. Goold, ed., Virgil. Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I–VI (c.19 bce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 1962), 6.285–288, 552, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil), “Aeneid,” in G. P. Goold, ed., Virgil. Aeneid VII–XII. The Minor Poems (c.19 bce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 1969), 7.785–788, 56, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses I (early first century ce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 1977), 6.339, 310, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; and Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses II (early first century ce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 2005), 9.646–949, 48, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition.

^50. The prevalence of classical themes in Seicento and Settecento culture, especially in Rome, has been well-documented. See in particular Anna Modigliani, “I Segni della Città: Feste, Ceremonie e Uso degli Spazi Pubblici a Roma,” in Cesare de Seta, ed., Imago Urbis. L'Immagine della Città nella Storia d'Italia (Rome: Viella, 2003), 481–82. The popularity of Homer as a source for imagery in the Baroque era is repeatedly highlighted in Mathilde V. Rovelstad and E. Michael Camilli, “Emblems as Inspiration and Guidance in Baroque Libraries,” Libraries & Culture 29, no. 2, (1994), 147–65 passim. Many manuscripts were made of De Rerum Natura in Cinquecento and Seicento Italy, with the text likely to have first been printed in c.1473. See Martin Ferguson Smith, “The Manuscripts,” in Martin Ferguson, ed., De Rerum Natura, 6th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library Harvard University Press, 1962), lvi. Virgil's Aeneid was circulation from the time of its publication. See G. P. Goold, “Introduction,” in G. P. Goold, ed., Virgil. Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I–VI, 13th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/ Harvard University Press, 2006), 14. The Metamorphoses of Ovid were composed in the late first century bce/early first century ce, likely at some point before his exile in 8 ce. They were in print almost continually. The availability of this text was increased greatly in the Quattrocento and Cinquecento with its translation into Italian in the Francisus Puteolanus 1471 Bolognese Editio princeps (1st ed.), and into English by Golding. Bernini possessed a 1598 Venetian translation. See Frank Justus Miller, “Introduction,” in Frank Justus Miller, ed., Ovid. Metamorphoses I (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/ Harvard University Press, 3rd ed., 1977), xii–xv; and McPhee, “Bernini's Books,” 444.

^51. Ripa, Iconologia, 364; and Ripa, Iconologia, 539–40.

^52. Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, n.p; and Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, 153.

^53. First published by the Florentine publishers Lorenzo Alamani in 1459, De Re Aedificatoria (or L'Architettura as it became known) was reprinted in 1489, illustrated in 1511, and then received numerous reprints, translations and annotations. See Alina Payne, The Architectural Treatise in the Italian Renaissance: Architectural Invention, Ornament, and Literary Criticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 263. Serlio's Tutte l'Opere d'Architettura et Prospettiva was published in Rome in instalments during the period 1519 to 1575. It was then frequently reprinted. Payne, The Architectural Treatise, 113–14. Palladio's I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura was first published in 1570, and subsequently underwent numerous reprints. McPhee, “Bernini's Books,” 444.

^54. Pollio Vitruvius (Vitruvius), De Architetura (early first century ce; repr., Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press, 1962), 1.2.1, 24, citations are to the Loeb Classical Library/Harvard University Press edition; Leon Battista Alberti, L'Architettura [De Re Aedificatoria] (Florence: 1459; repr., Milan: Edizioni il Polifilo, 1966), 1.6.61, citations are to the Edizioni il Polifilo edition; Sebastiano Serlio, Tutte l'Opere d'Architettura et Prospettiva (Rome: 1519; repr., New Jersey: Gregg Press, 1964), 3.69, citations are to the Gregg Press edition; and Andrea Palladio, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (Venice: 1570; repr. Hildesheim and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1979), 1.5, citations are to the Georg Olms Verlag edition.

^55. McPhee, “Bernini's Books,” 444–45. Bernini, despite owning copies of Serlio, Palladio and numerous editions of Vitruvius, did not possess a copy of Alberti. This indicates that as Lefaivre posits, Alberti's text may have fallen from favour in the Seicento. Consequently, it will not be a major source for this paper. Lefaivre, Leon Battista Alberti's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, 10–33.

^56. Martinelli, Roma Ornata, 3–4.

^57. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, 5.901–923, 448–50.

^58. “Multaque praeterea variorum monstra ferarum.” Virgil, “Aeneid,” in Virgil. Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I–VI, 6.285, 552.

^59. “Chimaeriferae…” Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 6.339, 310.

^60. Ovid, Metamorphoses II, 9.646–649, 48; and Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 6.339, 310.

^61. Ripa places the chimera within the sub-category of “monsters” [“mostri”]. Ripa, Iconologia, 362; Boccaccio, La Geneologia, 67; and Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, 152.

^62. “Deformano…” Bellori, Le Vite, 23.

^63. “Più perfetta forma…” Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 3.50.

^64. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, 5.901–923, 448–450.

^65. Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, 152.

^66. Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1654 edition, 119.

^67. “Hieroglifico della Pazzia.” Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1654 edition, 119.

^68. Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201. For a discussion of this, see Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 32.

^69. See Raffaello Sanzio, Madonna del Baldacchino (Florence: Galleria Palatina/Palazzo Pitti, 15071508), oil on canvas.

^70. Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 31.

^71. Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^72. Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^73. Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^74. Bellori, Le Vite, 23.

^75. This is in Bellori's section on L'Idea. See Bellori, Le Vite, 13–28 passim.

^76. “L'Invenzione…” D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, 39–41.

^77. Although the originality of the Baldacchino is not as prominent in Baglione's text, he does complete his description of the work by affirming that it was “designed by the Knight Bernini” [“disegno del Cavalier Bernino”], highlighting Bernini's authorship. Baglione, Le Vite, 179. Baldinucci, foreshadowing D. Bernini's focus on invention, praises the Baldacchino for being “a completely new thing…” [“una cosa al tutto nuova…”]. Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” 82.

^78. Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1654 edition, 119.

^79. Aristotle, Poetics, Gerald F Else trans. (mid-fourth century bce; repr. and trans., Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), 34–35, citations are to the University of Michigan Press edition; Aristotle, Poetics, 65; and “una maravigliosa forza dell'Intelletto…” Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1654 edition, 119.

^80. Baldinucci, “Vita del Cavaliere,” and D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, passim; and D. Bernini, Vita del Cavalier, 41. See Hill, “Introduction,” n.p; and Delbeke, “Prologomena,” 42.

^81. Aristotle, Poetics, 65.

^82. Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1654 edition, 119.

^83. “Invenzione degli Antichi Romani…” Palladio, I Quattro Libri, 1.40.

^84. “Mischiare.” Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 4.126.

^85. “Capriccio…” Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 4.126.

^86. See for example Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus, in which he claims that Italian architects could “now no more relish the Antique Simplicity, but [were] entirely employed in capricious Ornament.” Colen Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus: The Classic of Eighteenth-Century British Architecture (London: Dover Publications, vol. 1715; vol. II 1717; vol. III 1728; second edition vol. I 1718; vol. III 1720; vol. III 1731), vol. I, l, citations are to the Dover Publications edition.

^87. “Di licentia, che di ragione…” Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 4.126.

^88. “Prende la sua nobilità.” Ripa, Iconologia, 26.

^89. Ripa, Iconologia, 452.

^90. Martinelli, Roma Ornata, 3.

^91. Passeri, Vite, 299–300.

^92. “Li Baldacchini non si sostengono con le colonne, ma con la hasta… voleva mostrare che lo reggono l'Angeli e… era una chimera.” Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^93. “Decor…” Vitruvius, De Architetura, 1.2.5, 26–28; and Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 3.66.

^94. “L'Architetto ha da procedar molto modesto…massimamente nell'opere publiche, & [sic] di gravità, dove è lodevole servar il decoro.” Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 4.126.

^95. Vitruvius, De Architetura, 1.2.5, 26–28; and Serlio, Tutte l'Opere, 3.66.

^96. Virgil, “Aeneid,” in Virgil. Aeneid VII–XII. The Minor Poems, 7.785–788, 56.

^97. “I superbi mostri de i vitij.” Ripa, Iconologia, 539; and “Dannati,” Picinelli, Mundus Symbolicus, 153.

^98. “Di virtu molto notabile…” Boccaccio, La Geneologia, 220; Emanuele Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico (reprint with additions of the second edition, Venice: Presso Paolo Baglioni, 1669), 540, citations are to the Presso Paolo Baglioni edition; Tesauro, Il Cannocchiale Aristotelico, 1669 edition, 544; and Ripa, Iconologia, 539. Bellerophon, and his alignment with virtue, appear in Tesauro's text only in the 1669 edition.

^99. “Col consiglio, & [sic] con la virtu, siu supera la chimera…” Ripa, Iconologia, 539.

^100. “Urbano VIII il quale disse al detto Carlo si contentasse che il Bernino facesse detta opera” (“Urban VIII who said to the above mentioned Carlo [Maderno] that he must content himself that Bernini did the said work”). Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201.

^101. Borromini, in his addendum to Martinelli's text, comments on these drawings. Borromini, in Roma Ornata, 201. See also Marder, Bernini and the Art of Architecture, 31.

^102. “Huomini di gran giuditio, & [sic] di valore, lassando da parte molt'altri…” Ripa, Iconologia, 26.

^103. Jukka Jokilehto, “A History of Architectural Conservation. The Contribution of English, French, German and Italian Thought Towards an International Approach to the Conservation of Cultural Property” (Ph.D. diss., University of York, 1986), 67.

^104. “Il Popolo … non poteva far di meno non sentir dispiacere, et dolersi…”; and “una si bella Antichità…” Giacinto Gigli, Diario Romano (Rome: manuscript 1608–70; repr. Rome: Tumminelli Editore, 1958), 93, citations are to the Tumminelli Editore edition. Gigli's Diario Romano (Roman Diary) is his record of the events of Rome from the age of fourteen, to his career as a caporione (magisterial role as head of an area of Rome), to the year before his death. It is possible that Gigli foresaw the future publication of, or interest in, his text. He instructed the Vatican Library to keep a copy of the manuscript. See Giuseppe Ricciotti, “Introduzione,” in Diario Romano, Giuseppe Ricciotti ed., (Rome: Tumminelli Editore, 1958), 6–8.

^105. ‘Rimasta intatta dale offese de’ Barberi…’ Gigli, Diario Romano, 93.

^106. Pasquinades are paper billets pasted upon the Pasquino (a Hellenistic sculpture in the Piazza del Pasquino) and other statues in Rome. Their anonymity allowed for a freedom of speech otherwise not possible in the early modern period. Pasquinate remain a popular vehicle for the expression of public opinion. See Mario dell'Arco, Pasquino Statua Parlante (Rome: Editore in Roma, 1967), passim.

^107. “Quod non fecerunt Barbari, Barberini fecerunt.” Anonymous, “Pasquinade,” in Mario dell'Arco, ed., Pasquino Statua Parlante (Rome: Editore in Roma, 1967), 99. Francis Haskell attributes this statement to the pope's physician. However he does not provide a primary reference to support his argument. Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters. A Study in the Relations between Italian Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (New York: Icon Editions/Harper and Row, 1971), 35n1.