https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3342-5681
![Sample our Built Environment journals, sign in here to start your access, Latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5926/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Built-Environment.jpg"})
Notes
1. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (London: Abacus, 1994).
2. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 227.
3. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 235 and 253.
4. Swati Chattopadhyay’s recent keynote at SAH 2021 focusses on a geography of smaller “served” spaces of servants. It reveals the compounding challenge when considering a “global south” or “third world” within the interior of architecture, in addition to geopolitical landscapes.
5. See: Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A New History of Global Capitalism (London: Penguin Books, 2014).
6. See: Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, 5th ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 2020).
7. I made this argument at greater length elsewhere; see: Vladimir Kulić, “The Architecture of Communicating Vessels: The Second World in the Age of Capitalist Realism,” Perspecta 52 (2019): 288–293.
8. Ali Mazrui, “The United Nations and Some African Political Attitudes,” International Organization 18, no. 3 (1964): 499–520. Also see, Peter Lyon, Neutralism (Leicester: Leicester U Press, 1963); and Kweku Ampiah, The Political and Moral Imperatives of the Bandung Conference of 1955 (Kent: Global Oriental, 2007).
9. Jurgen Dinkel, “The Non-Aligned Movement and the North-South Conflict During the 1970s,” in Neutrality and Neutralism in the Global Cold War, eds. Sandra Bott et al. (New York: Routledge, 2016), pp. 108–123. Also see, Chris Alden, Sally Morphett and Marco Antonio Vieira, The South in World Politics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
10. In particular, see Natasa Miskovic, Harald Fischer-Tiné and Nada Boskovska, eds., The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War: Delhi-Bandung-Belgrade (London: Routledge, 2014); and Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (London: New Press, 2007) and The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South (London: Verso, 2014).
11. See works of Lukasz Stanek, Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020) and Vladimir Kulić, Spaces of Non-Alignment: Yugoslav Architecture in the Global Cold War (Forthcoming 2021).
12. Peter Scriver and Amit Srivastava, India (London: Reaktion, 2015); Farhan Karim, Of Greater Dignity Than Riches (Pittsburgh: University Pittsburgh Press, 2019); and Thomas Oommen, “Rethinking Indian Modernity from the Margins,” Architectural Theory Review 22, no. 3 (2018): 386–409.
13. As early as 1949, for instance, New Delhi hosted a regional conference to oppose Dutch military action in the future Indonesia, and support its bid for full sovereignty.
14. Peter Scriver, ed., The Scaffolding of Empire (Adelaide: CAMEA, 2007).
15. Current research on the work of the celebrated Indian Structural Engineer Mahendra Raj (Vandini Mehta and Rohit Raj Mehndiratta, “An Indian Engineer in the Middle East: South-South Cooperation and Professional Collaboration in the 1970s,” Seventh International Congress on Construction History (Lisbon: (Press/Balkema, 2021)) has identified a significant period of engagement with partners in the Middle East, including the Pahlavi University, a museum and cultural centre in Karmanshah, and Arbita Housing project in Iran; a water research centre in Baghdad, Iraq; a social insurance building, Jeddah, and Medina Mosque in Saudi Arabia; and the Indian Embassy in Kuwait. This follows in line with involvement of celebrated Indian architects like BV Doshi in the Iranian Architecture Conferences of the 1970s.
16. Current research on Indian migrant labour and construction material suppliers in Dubai (Shaji Panicker, “Indian immigration and building construction in the UAE: Creating the Future since the 1970s,” Seventh International Congress on Construction History (Lisbon: (Press/Balkema, 2021)) has identified the mobility of transport operators from Punjab province in Pakistan, carpenters and masons from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, plumbers from Bihar, accountants and storekeepers from Kerala, engineers form Andhra Pradesh; and import of construction materials including cement and galvanised iron pipes and sheets from India, and plywood from Malaysia and Indonesia.
17. Changing patterns of entrepreneurship and associated changes in foreign currency policies in India in the 1970s were further relevant factors that also prompted businesses like the Indian hotel company Oberoi to expand into these countries, beginning with Singapore (1969), soon expanding westward, and southward as well, to Cairo (1971), Colombo (1973), Baghdad (1974), Zanzibar (1976), Bali (1977), and Adelaide (1979). See Amit Srivastava and Peter Scriver, “Australians and Africans in a Post-Colonial Asian Empire”, paper presented at Mobilities of Design (Singapore, 2013).
18. See Ljubica Spaskovska, “Building a better world? Construction, labour mobility and the pursuit of collective self-reliance in the ‘Global South’, 1950–1990,” Labour History 59, no.3 (2018): 331–351. Yugoslav construction and engineering companies such as Energoprojekt had permanent offices in no less than 11 countries across Africa, the Arab/Persian Gulf region and even Latin America (Libya (2), Nigeria (3), Zimbabwe, Angola, Botswana, Guinea, Kuwait, Iraq, UAE, Panama, Peru), employing skilled labour from India, Pakistan, and Taiwan. Further current research (Luka Skansi and Jelica Jovanović, “«Mostogradnja» and Yugoslavia in Iraq. A Bridge on the Euphrates near Fallujah (1964–1967),” Seventh International Congress on Construction History (Lisbon: (Press/Balkema, 2021)) reveals the involvement of Mostogradnja, another Yugoslav construction company, in building highways and bridges in Iraq, and the deployment of the IMS Žeželj concrete prefabrication system in Ethiopia, and in Angola via Cuba (Jelica Jovanović, “Prefabricating Non-Alignment: The IMS Žeželj System across the Decolonized World,” Seventh International Congress on Construction History (Lisbon: (Press/Balkema, 2021)).
19. See Marwa El-Ashmouni, “Non-Alignment and Patterns of Freedom and Dominance,” Seventh International Congress on Construction History (Lisbon: (Press/Balkema, 2021)).
20. See Mojca Smode Cvitanovic, “Tracing the Non-Aligned Architecture: Environments of Technical Cooperation and the Work of Croatian Architects in Kumasi, Ghana (1961–1970),” Histories of Post-War Architecture 6 (2020): 34–67; and Lukasz Stanek, Decolonization by Non-Alignment: The Africanization of Ghana’s Construction Industry“, paper presented at the Seventy-fourth Annual International Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians (online, 2021).
21. Joan Ockman and Edward Eigen, Architecture Culture, 1943–1968: A Documentary Anthology (New York: Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture Planning and Preservation : Rizzoli, 1993); Sarah Williams Goldhagen and Rejean Legault, Anxious Modernisms : Experimentation in Post-War Architectural Culture (Montreal, Cambridge, Mass.: Canadian Centre for Architecture; MIT Press, 2000).
22. Michael Denning, Culture in the Age of Three Worlds (London; New York: Verso, 2004), p.2.
23. I refer to writers such as Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm, Ernest Gellner, Michael Herzfeld, Homi K. Bhabha and the Subaltern group, and in architecture: Gwendolyn Wright, Anthony King, Zeynep Celik, Sibel Bozdogan, and others.
24. Duanfang Lu, ed., Third World Modernism: Architecture Development and Identity (London: Routledge, 2010).
25. See “Second World Urbanity”, http://www.secondworldurbanity.org [accessed 3 March 2020]; Juliana Maxim, The Socialist Life of Modern Architecture Bucharest, 1949–1964 (London: Routledge, 2019); Kimberly Elman Zarecor, Manufacturing a Socialist Modernity: Housing in Czechoslovakia, 1945–1960 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011).
26. See: Eran Neuman, “Arieh Sharon: The Nation’s Architect Exhibit Catalog” (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 2018); Judith Turner and Michael Levin, eds., White City: International Style Architecture in Israel, A Portrait of an Era, Special ed (Tel-Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum, 1994).
27. Ayala Levin, Architecture of Development: Israel-African Collaborations, 1958–1973 (Duke University Press, forthcoming).
28. Forthcoming: Leisurescapes: Architectures and Landscapes of Tourism in the Global Sun Belt 1945–1980, eds., Panayiota Pyla, Sibel Bozdogan and Petros Phokaides.
29. PBS Newshour: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/gehry-designed-eisenhower-memorial-unveiled-after-20-years-during-a-fraught-moment (accessed 7 February 2021).
30. US heavy construction company Morrison-Knudsen, for example, built six air bases in Morocco, beginning in 1951. See Christopher S. Blanchard, “Changing the Face of the Earth: The Morrison-Knudsen Corporation as Partner to the US Federal Government” (Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest, 2014). My thanks to Seçil Binboga for information on Morrison-Knudsen.