Government funding of non-governmental organisations and the implied freedom of political communication: The constitutionality of gag clauses

Abstract

Provisions in government funding agreements with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) may constrain the ability of these organisations to contribute to political debate. NGOs perceive risks to their funding if they criticise government policy. Such organisations play a significant role in the democratic process, and this article examines the applicability of the constitutional freedom of political communication to ‘gag clauses’. Australian courts have not considered the constitutional freedom in this context, but the Supreme Court of the United States has considered the question in relation to the First Amendment. The article shows what can be learned from American jurisprudence and Australian case law in order to challenge such provisions.

政府与非政府组织的资助协议中的条款约束了这些组织进行政治辩论的能力。非政府组织如果批评政府的政策就会感到资助受到威胁。非政府组织在民主过程中扮演了重要的角色，本文政治探讨了交流的宪政自由能否适用于“钳口条款”。澳大利亚法庭没有处理过此类宪政自由的案子，不过美国高等法庭倒是处理过和第一修正案相关的问题。本文分析了可以从美国的司法以及澳大利亚的案例法中学到什么，以挑战这类条款。

Keywords:

• advocacy
• constitution
• First Amendment
• funding agreements
• gag clauses
• implied freedom of communication

Notes

¹See, for instance, Grosjean v American Press Co Inc (1936) 297 US 233, 246.

² Aid/Watch Inc v Commissioner of Taxation (2010) 241 CLR 539, 556–57.

³For example, Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106; Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520.

⁴The precise meaning of these terms is elusive (Bronitt and Williams 1996: 298–99; Kirk 1995: 53; Stone 2001: 378).

⁵ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 567–68; Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 50, 57, 62.

⁶ Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 138–39.

⁷ Levy v State of Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579, 619 (Gaudron J); Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 31 (Gleeson CJ).

⁸ Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 555 (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); Wotton v State of Queensland and Anor (2012) 246 CLR 1; Monis v The Queen [2013] HCA 4, [64] (French CJ), [342] (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 169.

⁹ Wotton v State of Queensland and Anor (2012) 246 CLR 1, 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ); Nationwide News v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1, 76–7 (Deane and Toohey JJ).

¹⁰ Wotton v State of Queensland and Anor (2012) 246 CLR 1, 15 (French CJ); Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 543, 555; Stephens v West Australian Newspapers (1994) 182 CLR 104, 232, 235.

¹¹ Levy v State of Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579, 594, 614, 623, 638.

¹² Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 560.

¹³ Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 11, 24.

¹⁴ Monis v The Queen [2013] HCA 4, [361], [387].

¹⁵ Aid/Watch v Commissioner of Taxation (2010) 241 CLR 539, 556.

¹⁶ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 560.

¹⁷ Williams v Commonwealth (2012) 86 ALJR 713, 737, 747, 759, 818.

¹⁸ Cummins v Missouri (1867) 71 US (4 Wall) 277.

¹⁹ Regan v Taxation with Representation of Washington (1984) 461 US 540; Agency for International Development v Alliance for an Open Society (2013) 133 S Ct.

²⁰ Western Union v Kansas (1910) 216 US 1, 53.

²¹ South Australia v Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373, 417; Agency for International Development v Alliance for an Open Society (2013) 133 S Ct.

²² Monis v The Queen [2013] HCA 4, [326] (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

²³ Cheatle v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR 541, 556; Betfair Pty Ltd v Western Australia (2008) 234 CLR 318; Andrews v Howell (1941) 65 CLR 255, 282.

²⁴ Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 140, 143 (Mason CJ), 231, 235, 239 (McHugh J); Nationwide News v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1, 32 (Mason CJ), 79 (Deane and Toohey JJ); Theophanous v Herald and Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 104, 130 (Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ), 177, 182 (Deane J); Levy v Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579, 594 (Brennan CJ), 623 (McHugh J), 638–42 (Kirby J); Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 75 (Gummow and Hayne JJ); Attorney-General (SA) v Corporation of the City of Adelaide [2013] HCA 3, [151] (Heydon J); Monis v The Queen [2013] HCA 4, [27–8] (French CJ); Wotton v State of Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 21 (Heydon J).

²⁵ Cantwell v Connecticut (1940) 310 US 296.

²⁶ Perry v Sindermann (1972) 408 US 593.

²⁷ Perry v Sindermann (1972) 408 US 593, 597; see also Elrod, Sheriff v Burns (1976) 427 US 347; Pickering v Board of Education of Township High School (1968) 391 US 563.

²⁸ Snyder v Phelps (2011) 131 S Ct 1207.

²⁹ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520; Aid/Watch v Commissioner of Taxation (2010) 241 CLR 539.

³⁰ Brown v Hartlage (1986) 456 US 45, 53; Snyder v Phelps (2011) 131 S Ct 1207, 1215; Police Department of the City of Chicago et al. v Mosley (1972) 408 US 92, 95.

³¹ Speiser v Randall (1958) 357 US 513, 518.

³² Rumsfeld v Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights Inc (2006) 547 US 47, 59; United States v American Library Association (2003) 539 US 194, 210.

³³ Federal Communications Commission v League of Women Voters of California (1984) 468 US 364, 382.

³⁴ Rust v Sullivan (1991) 500 US 173; Regan v Taxation with Representation of Washington (1984) 461 US 540; Agency for International Development v Alliance for an Open Society (2013) 133 S. Ct.

³⁵ Agency for International Development v Alliance for an Open Society (2013) 133 S. Ct, 16.

³⁶ Agency for International Development v Alliance for an Open Society (2013) 133 S. Ct, 17, 23.

³⁷ Legal Services Corporation v Velazquez (2001) 531 US 533, 549.

³⁸ Frost v Frost Railroad Commission of California (1926) 271 US 583, 593–94.

³⁹ Police Department of the City of Chicago et al. v Mosley (1972) 408 US 92, 95.

⁴⁰ Rosenberger v Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia (1995) 515 US 819, 830.

⁴¹ Simon and Schuster v Members of the New York State Crime Victims Board (1991) 502 US 105, 117–18.

⁴² Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 232.

⁴³ Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District No 26 v Pico (1982) 457 US 853, 871; Minneapolis Star and Tribune Co v Minnesota Commissioner of Revenue (1983) 460 US 575, 592.

⁴⁴ Levy v State of Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579, 619 (Gaudron J); Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 31 (Gleeson CJ); Wotton v State of Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 31 (Kiefel J).

⁴⁵ Sherbert v Verner (1963) 374 US 398, 404.

⁴⁶ Wotton v State of Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 31–32.

⁴⁷ Brown v The Queen (1986) 160 CLR 171, 202, 208.

⁴⁸ ICM Agriculture Pty Ltd v Commonwealth of Australia (2009) 240 CLR 140, 170, 216; New South Wales v Commonwealth (1949) 76 CLR 1, 350; British Medical Association v Commonwealth (1949) 79 CLR 201; Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 158 CLR 1, 283.

⁴⁹ Aid/Watch v Commissioner of Taxation (2010) 241 CLR 539, 551, 556 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ), 565 (Kiefel J).

⁵⁰ Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506.

⁵¹ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, as reinterpreted in Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1.

⁵² Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 555 (Gummow, Heydon, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

⁵³ Wotton v State of Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ).

⁵⁴ Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 143 (Mason CJ), 235 (McHugh J).

⁵⁵ Minneapolis Star and Tribune Co v Minnesota Commissioner of Revenue (1983) 460 US 575.

⁵⁶ Leathers, Commissioner of Revenues for Arkansas v Medlock (1991) 499 US 439, 503.

⁵⁷ Wotton v State of Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 34 (Kiefel J); Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 143 (Mason CJ), 235 (McHugh J).